Industrial/Organizational Psychology Worksheet

1.         Describe the evolution of the field of industrial/organizational psychology.

          I/O psychology’s invention occurred in the twentieth century, and its roots are from the late years of the 1800s to the early years of the 1900s (Spector, 2012). The beginnings of I/O psychology as a subfield of psychology almost date back to the beginnings of psychology. Experimental psychologists, Hugo Munsterberg and Walter Dill Scott were the first psychologists to perform I/O work because of their interest of applying psychology’s new principles to problems within organizations. For this reason, Munsterberg and Scott hold the distinction of founding American I/O psychology. Munsterberg and Scott also wrote two foundational books concerning I/O psychology, which are Psychology and Industrial Efficiency (1913) by Munsterberg, and Theory of Advertising (1903), by Scott. Frederick Winslow Taylor also made contributions to I/O psychology by developing the theory of Scientific Management, which included principles for guiding organizational practices (Spector, 2012).

          I/O psychology advance further when engineer Frank Gilbreth and psychologist Lillian Gilbreth (husband and wife), combined their respective fields. Therefore, they contributed the motion and time study, which dealt with measuring the time of an individual’s motions when performing a certain task with the goal of developing increased efficient means of working (Spector, 2012). Furthering I/O psychology’s evolution occurred during World War I, when its first applications occurred, whereas for assisting with the war effort in the United States and the United Kingdom. During this time in the United States, Robert Yerkes led other psychologist to help the army by developing the Army’s Alpha and Beta group tests, which was for testing mental abilities for unit assignments (Spector, 2012). During this time in the United Kingdom, the Health of Munitions Committee (HMC) establishment occurred in 1915, to handle issues of employees’ safety, health, and efficiency, which were worse because of productivity demands as a result of World War I (Spector, 2012).

          Between World War I and World War II, I/O psychology expanded tremendously into areas it currently serves. In the United Kingdom, in 1921, Charles Myers a psychologist helped found the National Institute of Industrial Psychology (NIIP); devoted to the improvement of working conditions and the efficiency of British workers (Spector, 2012). Also during this time in the United States, Bruce V. Moore earned the first Ph.D. in I/O psychology from Penn State in 1921. Also during this time I/O psychologist started consulting firms, which provided free assistance to organizations. In 1921, well-known Psychological Corporation, an American corporation (currently referred to as Harcourt Assessment), whose founder was James McKeen Cattell; offered free services and established the Hawthorne studies (Spector, 2012). The Hawthorne studies proved the difficulty of separating the productivity of employees and organizational life’s social aspects, which drew attention to the organizational aspect of I/O psychology.          

          Before World War II, the APA had little to no concern with practices of psychology in organizational areas and focused on experimental psychology. However, in 1944, within the APA what occurred was the formation of Division 14 of Industrial and Business Psychology. This occurred to address needs of practicing the I/O psychology subfield of psychology. Spector (2012), “in 1970, Division 14 of the APA changed its name to the Division of Industrial and Organizational Psychology and is today called the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP)” (p. 13). In the United States what also occurred which also shaped I/O psychology was the 1964 Civil Rights Act passage. This act affected how organizations hired and treated employees in the United States and other countries. Currently I/O psychology’s applications occur in laboratory scientific research and the field to handle issues, which affect organizations.  

2.         Explain why industrial/organizational psychology should be considered a science.  Include an explanation of how descriptive and inferential statistics are used in I/O research.

          One should consider I/O psychology as a science because of its use of scientific research and its practice and because of its use of descriptive and inferential statistics. Spector (2012), “I/O psychologists do many different jobs in a wide variety of settings” (p. 6). One divides I/O settings into two areas of concern, which are scientific research and practice. The research area provides certain principles, which one applies in practice. The activity of practice involves using psychological principles for solving problems of the real-world. Scientific research and practice are both important in I/O psychology. I/O psychologist perform studies were the requirements of statistical methods are necessary for analysis of data. Statistical methods used to perform studies are descriptive and inferential statistics. I/O psychologists use descriptive statistics for summarizing study results. I/O psychologists use inferential statistics for the purpose of interpreting the results of studies by using different statistical tests.   

3.         Discuss the influence industrial/organization psychology has had on organizations. Provide examples.

I/O psychology has had a substantial influence on organizations. 

          World War I and II saw the influence of I/O psychology on American organizations because they employed I/O psychologists for addressing employee issues in relation to productivity. An example of this is the  development of the developing the Army’s Alpha and Beta group tests, which was for testing mental abilities for unit assignments (Spector, 2012). The influence in the United Kingdom around the same time saw I/O psychology advance studies to improve working conditions and the efficiency of British employees in certain organizations. I/O psychology had such an influence during this time that the development of I/O psychology consulting firms occurred, and today there is the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP). I/O psychology has had such an influence worldwide that many organizations now employee I/O psychologist to improve efficiency and functioning.  

Reference

Spector, P. E. (2012). Industrial and organizational psychology (6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Select a psychological test and describe how it is used in the workplace. What are the pros and cons of using this particular test? What ethical issues arise when using psychological testing?

           Psychological tests are a series of problems or questions, which are standardized and they assess the characteristics of a certain individual (Spector, 2012). The common use of psychological testing is for assessing KSAOs, which include knowledge, skills, abilities, attitudes, interests, and personality (Spector, 2012). These tests consist of multiple items that are an indication of certain characteristics of concern. Several types of tests are available, which are used for assessing individual characteristics that number in the hundreds (Spector, 2012). Selecting a particular test is determined by a particular characteristic of interest. One psychological test of interest is a personality test. A personality test is a means to assess one's personality traits, which are predispositions or tendencies of behavior in varies situations. Certain personality tests are used for assessing a single personality trait; whereas, personality inventories are used for assessing multiple dimensions as well as they are used for profiling individuals as to include or take into consideration several personality traits.

          As for the workplace, personality tests are used for predicting the behavior of perspective or current employees. Personality tests help for weeding out employees who may not be conducive for the organizational goals of a workplace and employers use personality tests as a means to understand the traits of perspective and current employees. These test help employers place employees where he or she fits best within organizational settings. These types of tests are also used to help predict if perspective or current employees will engage in fraud or theft.

          A couple pros of using personality tests are that employers can use them for comparing perspective employees to ideal employees and for testing the different aspects of one's character. A couple of cons of using personality tests are the cost of them and the regulations for using them. The ethical issues that arise when using psychological testing are the issues of them being used for unfair or discriminatory practices, misuse of psychological tests and the information they provide, and confidentiality breaches.  

Reference

Spector, P. E. (2012). Industrial and organizational psychology (6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Please describe the 360 degree (multi-rater) performance feedback. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the 360 degree feedback process?

          The 360-degree (multi-rater) performance feedback is an effective tool that evaluates one's performance. The 360-degree system's purpose is for enhancing one's performance, specifically for individuals who need to improve his or her performance the most (Spector, 2012). This evaluation method incorporates the feedback from an employee, as well as his or her subordinates, superiors, peers, and customers. The tabulated results of this method are normally shared with an employee by his or her manager. With the 360-degree performance feedback, an employee is key to his or her process of evaluation and the goal is to improve his or her performance within the organization he or she works for. Basically, the 360-degree feedback is an assessment tool that seems to only evaluate an individual's performance but it also helps one development and progress. 

         The 360 degree (multi-rater) performance feedback process has several advantages and disadvantages. An advantage of this process is that many organizations experience substantial success with the 360-degree feedback. Another advantage of the 360-degree process is that it is an evaluation process, which allows for feedback form several perspectives. However, a disadvantage is that some feedback may be biassed and research does show that individuals in different positions will display only modest agreement in his or her ratings (Spector, 2012). Further advantages are that the criticisms from the 360-degree feedback are seen as opportunities for one to improve on. Also organizations can use the feedback from the 360-degree process to develop feedback tools based on an organization's values and goals. However, another disadvantage is that some feedback may not link with an organization's values and goals. One other disadvantage is that if an organization poorly implements the 360-degree feedback it can negatively affect an individual's motivation. Yes the 360-degree feedback process has advantages and disadvantages; however, I think that the advantages outweigh the disadvantages.               

Reference

Spector, P. E. (2012). Industrial and organizational psychology (6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Decision Tree (Crisis – Rape)

Crisis - Rape

Charlotte-Mecklenburg Police Department

Safe Alliance

Family Member

Rape Crisis Assistance Hotline

North Carolina Victim Assistance Network

United Family Services

RAINN

Agencies and Organizations

·         Charlotte-Mecklenburg Police Department (CMPD) – 601 E. Trade Street  Charlotte, NC 28202, Emergency and Patrol Response: 911, Non-Emergency Crime Reporting: 311, Website: http://www.cmpd.org, Contact person: Sexual Assault Unit’s Det. Laura Orlov, 704-336-6052

•           What is the best way to access the organization’s services? – The best way is by calling.

•           Is this the best number to call? - 911

•           What are the extents of the services offered? – Services offered to victims of rape are extensive, whereas the CMPD takes the necessary steps to protect and seek justice for any victim of rape. 

•           What are the criteria for clients to receive these services? – Anyone who claims to be a victim of rape meets the criteria to receive these services. Who is eligible? – Any victim of rape is eligible for any services.  

•           How does the organization provide continuity of care to clients? – CMPD provides continuity of care to clients by providing protection for rape victims and helps victims submit a police report about the incident. Officers also help victims seek medical attention by EMTs, and receive transportation to a local hospital for medical assistance by a doctor. Officers also help victims have a rape kit (Sexual Assault Evidence Collection Kit) performed. Police officers then pass along a victim’s report to detectives of the Criminal Investigations Bureau; specifically, the Armed Robbery/Sexual Assault division (Sexual Assault Unit). What additional services will be available or offered to clients once they become involved with this organization? – Detectives of the Sexual Assault Unit investigate, identify, apprehend and assist in the prosecution of all suspects involved in the occurrence of rape. The Sexual Assault Unit also tries to educate individuals in the prevention of rape occurring again.

•           Will you be able to have contact with your clients once they are involved with this service/organization? – Yes, victims receive telephone numbers of the detective or detectives who are handling his or her case, and detectives receive all contact information of the victims.

•           What is the organization’s policy on client follow-up? – The CMPD takes a proactive approach as for client follow-up. The CMPD stays in constant contact with rape victims until the District Attorney’s office takes over the victim’s case. Also, the CMPD may provide testimony for victims in court.   

•           What role do you or your agency play in responding to emergencies? - The CMPD is a first responder for emergencies and any crisis of rape.

·         Safe Alliance - 601 East Fifth Street-Administrative Office Suite 400, Charlotte, NC 28202, Tel: 704-332-9034, Fax: 704-373-1604, Email: info@safealliance.org, Contact person: Johanna Covault 704-367-2758

•           What is the best way to access the organization’s services? - The best way is in person or by calling.

•           Is this the best number to call? - 704-375-9900

•           What are the extents of the services offered? – Whatever the client needs Safe Alliance will provide to the best of the organization’s ability.

•           What are the criteria for clients to receive these services? - Any victim of rape meets the criteria to receive these services. Who is eligible? - Any victim of rape is eligible for any services.   

•           How does the organization provide continuity of care to clients? - Safe Alliance provides continuity of care to clients by providing hope and healing for individuals in crisis. What additional services will be available or offered to clients once they become involved with this organization? -  Additional services are rape crisis programs, which assist adults and children of sexual assault and his or her family members. Also, provided are safety planning, 24 hour hotline, and 24 hour accompaniment to local hospitals in Mecklenburg county. Other services include continuing support, counseling, advocacy, case management, and support groups. As well as, court accompaniment and education, referrals to other supportive services, assistance with compensation of victims, and photographic documentation of injuries.

•           Will you be able to have contact with your clients once they are involved with this service/organization? – Yes,

•           What is the organization’s policy on client follow-up? – Safe Alliance stays in constant contact with clients throughout his or her healing process.

•           What role do you or your agency play in responding to emergencies? – Safe Alliance can be a first responder for victims of rape, and call the Charlotte-Mecklenburg Police Department (CMPD) for clients after an occurrence of rape. Safe Alliance can even respond to victims of rape after the CMPD has to provide assistance and helps victims through the process of seeking medical assistance and a rape kit (Sexual Assault Evidence Collection Kit).   

·         Family Members – Family members provide empathy, compassion, financial, and emotional support for a rape victim in his or her time of need. Family members help by empowering their loved one. Family members of rape victims can also assist the victims in seeking help and justice; provide a safe environment after the assault and help victims through the recovery process. 

·         Rape Crisis Assistance Hotline - 601 E. 5th St., Suite 400 Charlotte, NC 28202, Tel: 704-375-9900 (24 Hours), Website: http://www.unitedfamilyservices.org, Contact person: Denise 704-375-9900

•           What is the best way to access the organization’s services? - The best way is through the 24 hour hotline.

•           Is this the best number to call? - 704-375-9900

•           What are the extents of the services offered? – The Rape Crisis Assistance Hotline offers numerous services to victims of rape through their 24 hour hotline and will direct victims to other organizations for further assistance.

•           What are the criteria for clients to receive these services? - Any victim of rape meets the criteria to receive these services. Who is eligible? - Any victim of rape is eligible for any services.  

•           How does the organization provide continuity of care to clients? – The Rape Crisis Assistance Hotline is a division of Safe Alliance, which provides continuity of care to clients by providing assistance to victims of rape and his or her family through a 24 hour hotline, and in person by directing victims to Safe Alliance. What additional services will be available or offered to clients once they become involved with this organization? – Additional services are accompaniment to hospitals for care, accompaniment to interviews and meetings with the police and DA, assistance with the compensation of victims and counseling services.

•           Will you be able to have contact with your clients once they are involved with this service/organization? – Yes,

•           What is the organization’s policy on client follow-up? - The Rape Crisis Assistance Hotline and Safe Alliance stay in constant contact with clients.

•           What role do you or your agency play in responding to emergencies? - The Rape Crisis Assistance Hotline will send an advocate to assist and help a victim seeking medical attention and a rape kit (Sexual Assault Evidence Collection Kit), at area hospitals. 

·         North Carolina Victim Assistance Network (NCVAN) - 130 Penmarc Drive, Suite 101, Raleigh, NC 27603, Tel: 919-831-2857 or 1-800-348-5068 (toll free), Contact person: Karen Remedo 919-831-2857 ext. 3

•           What is the best way to access the organization’s services? - The best way is by calling.

•           Is this the best number to call? - 1-800-348-5068

•           What are the extents of the services offered? - The extent of services offered by the NCVAN is to provide information and support for victims throughout NC and to advocate for his or her fair treatment. NCVAN provides train program two to three times a year for victim advocates and service providers of victims throughout North Carolina.

•           What are the criteria for clients to receive these services? - Any victim of rape meets the criteria to receive these services. Who is eligible? - Any victim of rape is eligible for any services.  

•           How does the organization provide continuity of care to clients? – The NCVAN provides continuity of care to clients by providing information and support for victims across NC and to be an advocate for an individual’s fair treatment. What additional services will be available or offered to clients once they become involved with this organization? - Additional services provided are a 24 hour crisis line, courtroom accompaniment/advocacy, referral/information and supportive groups. Also provided are volunteer companions for accompanying victims of sexual assault to hospitals, free professional counseling for victims of rape, family counseling, and community education concerning the prevention of rape.

•           Will you be able to have contact with your clients once they are involved with this service/organization? – Yes,

•           What is the organization’s policy on client follow-up? - NCVAN directs clients to partner organizations in his or her area that can perform client follow-up.

•           What role do you or your agency play in responding to emergencies? - As for responding to emergencies, NCVAN connects individuals to direct service emergency providers in his or her community and provides volunteer companions for accompanying victims of sexual assault to hospitals.

·         United Family Services - 604 Landcaster Ave. Monroe, NC 28112, Contact/Representative: Pamela B. Caskey, Coordinator, Tel: 704-226-1352, Website: http://www.nc-van.org/directory/mecklenburg/UnitedFamilyServicesRapeCrisis&ChildAbusePreventionServices.html, Contact person: Arleen 704-226-1352

•           What is the best way to access the organization’s services? - The best way is by calling or through United Family Services’ website.

•           Is this the best number to call? - 704-226-1352

•           What are the extents of the services offered? – The extent of services offered by United Family Services, a division of Safe Alliance is to provide information and support for victims and to advocate for victim’s fair treatment.

•           What are the criteria for clients to receive these services? - Any victim of rape meets the criteria to receive these services. Who is eligible? - Any victim of rape is eligible for any services.  

•           How does the organization provide continuity of care to clients? - United Family Services provides continuity of care to clients by providing support and information victims’ healing and justice. What additional services will be available or offered to clients once they become involved with this organization? – Additional services provided are a 24 hour crisis line, courtroom accompaniment/advocacy, supportive groups, and referral/information. Also provided are volunteer companions for accompanying victims of sexual assault to hospitals, free professional counseling for victims of rape, family counseling, and community education concerning the prevention of rape.

•           Will you be able to have contact with your clients once they are involved with this service/organization? - Yes

•           What is the organization’s policy on client follow-up? - United Family Services stays in constant contact with clients, and has an advocate or volunteer contact new clients within 24 hours. 

•           What role do you or your agency play in responding to emergencies? – As for responding to emergencies, United Family Services has a direct link with local hospitals, and provides advocates and volunteers for accompanying victims of sexual assault to hospitals. Also United Family Services will contact the local police department.

·         Rape, Abuse, & Incest National Network (RAINN) - 1220 L Street, NW, Suite 505, Washington, DC 20005, Tel: 202-544-3064, Fax: 202-544-3556, Website: info@rainn.org, Also has a RAINN-Partner Crisis Center, Charlotte, NC 28202, Contact person: Claudia 202-544-3064

•           What is the best way to access the organization’s services? - The best way is by calling or through the website.

•           Is this the best number to call? - 1-800-656-HOPE (4673)

•           What are the extents of the services offered? - The extent of services offered by RAINN’s online hotline services is to provide crisis intervention and support for victims of sexual assault. RAINN also has programs to help in preventing sexual violence, helping victims, and ensuring the punishment of rapists.

•           What are the criteria for clients to receive these services? - Any victim of rape meets the criteria to receive these services. Who is eligible? - Any victim of rape or victim or a sexual assault is eligible for any services.  

•           How does the organization provide continuity of care to clients? – RAINN provides continuity of care to clients by providing programs, which help to prevent sexual violence, and helps victims of sexual assault by ensuring to help with the prosecution of rapists. These programs are through RAINN’s partners throughout the United States in a victim’s local area. What additional services will be available or offered to clients once they become involved with this organization? – Additional services are crisis intervention and support, answers to questions about one’s recover from a sexual assault, information about medical concerns, and resources for assisting with a victim’s reporting process. Also included are referrals and information about local resources.

•           Will you be able to have contact with your clients once they are involved with this service/organization? – Yes,

•           What is the organization’s policy on client follow-up? - The online hotline provides ongoing and immediate crisis help.

•           What role do you or your agency play in responding to emergencies? - As for responding to emergencies, RAINN is not a first responder but will contact local authorities and local partner affiliates for victims.

Attempts to reach each Agency and Organization

·         Charlotte-Mecklenburg Police Department (CMPD) – In person visit on 01/06/2014, called on 01/07/2014, 01/08/2014, and 01/10/2014 (questions answered by Det. Laura Orlov, 704-336-6052)

·         Safe Alliance – In person visit on 01/06/2014, called on 01/07/2014 and 01/08/2014, received a call back on 01/09/2014 (questions answered by Johanna Covault, 704-367-2758)

·         Rape Crisis Assistance Hotline – In person visit on 01/06/2014, called on 01/07/2014, 01/08/2014, 01/10/2014, and 01/13/2014 (questions answered by Denise, 704-375-9900)

·         North Carolina Victim Assistance Network (NCVAN)  – In person (Charlotte, NC Local office) Called on 01/07/2014 01/09/2014, 01/10/2014, 01/13/2014 (questions answered by Karen Remedo, 919-831-2857 ext. 3)

·         United Family Services - Called on 01/07/2014 01/09/2014, and 01/13/2014 (questions answered by Arleen, 704-226-1352)

·         Rape, Abuse, & Incest National Network (RAINN) - In person (RAINN-Partner Crisis Center, Charlotte, NC) on 01/06/2014, Called on 01/07/2014 01/08/2014, and 01/13/2014 (questions answered by Claudia, 202-544-3064)

Organizations often consider on-staff industrial/organizational psychologists as cost with no revenue return. What might industrial/organizational psychologists do to demonstrate their value to organizational leaders?

          If an organization does consider on-staff industrial/organizational (I/O) psychologists as a cost without a beneficial return, then that organization is making a critical mistake by underestimating the value of  I/O psychologists. Such organizations are also underestimating the benefits these professionals bring to such an organization. I/O psychologists are a valued asset for an organization because they affect the effectiveness and functioning of an organization. I/O psychologists have various means of demonstrating their value to leaders of organizations. I/O psychologists can start demonstrating their value by providing a detailed list of activities they will perform to affect an organization's effectiveness and functioning. This detailed list of activities would be to analyze the nature of a job, conduct an analysis to determine the solution to an organizational problem, conduct a survey of employee feelings and opinions, design an employee performance appraisal system, and design an employee selection system (Spector, 2012). Also included in the list would to design a training program, develop psychological tests, evaluate the effectiveness of an activity or practice, and implement an organizational change (Spector, 2012).

          By providing such a list I/O psychologists can demonstrate how such activities affected the effectiveness and functioning of other organizations who employed I/O psychologists. Performing such a task is done by researching and studying those organizations, such as AT&T and General Electric (GE) who indeed employed I/O psychologists. Certain I/O psychologists can provide detailed firsthand accounts of how such activities affected the effectiveness and functioning of organizations who employed them. Providing such research, studies, and firsthand detailed accounts of effective previous employment to a potential or current organization of employment demonstrates the value of I/O psychologists. Organizational goals are best met by further improving the effectiveness and functioning of an organization. When I/O psychologists demonstrate their value they can indeed improve an organization's effectiveness and functioning.               

Reference

Spector, P. E. (2012). Industrial and organizational psychology (6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Describe some of the major activities and tasks an industrial/organizational performs. Which do you believe is most beneficial to the organization?

          Industrial/organizational (I/O) psychology is a subfield of psychology. The concern of I/O psychology is the development and application of scientific principles to the work environment (Spector, 2012). I/O focuses on the efficiency of the work environment and the well-being of employees. I/O's goal is studying and understanding the behavior of employees in the work environment. Which is the responsibility of I/O psychologists. I/O psychologists perform numerous activities and tasks for organizations to enhance an organization's effectiveness, functioning ability, and to enhance the well-being of employees through job analysis, conducting analysis for determining solutions for organizational problems, conducting surveys of employee's feelings and opinions, and designing employee's performance appraisal systems (Spector, 2012). As well as designing employee's selection systems, designing training programs, developing psychological tests, evaluating the effectiveness of activities or practices, and implementing organizational changes (Spector, 2012).

           I believe the most beneficial activity of an I/O psychologist to an organization is to perform a job analysis or analyzing the nature of jobs. To be an effective I/O psychologist one must start with a job analysis. Analyzing a job or work environment provides significant information for an I/O psychologist, which enables him or her to determine what steps are necessary to maintain or enhance the effectiveness of a work environment and the well-being of an organization's employees. A job analysis allows an I/O psychologist to see what areas an organization has failed at or needs to improve in. A job analysis allows one to implement goals and to take necessary actions to rectify areas of failure or to enhance potential successful areas within an organization. I/O psychologist are an important and beneficial members of an organization, which can effectively enhance the well-being of an organization and its employees.       

Reference

Spector, P. E. (2012). Industrial and organizational psychology (6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Sexual and Gender Identity, Personality, and Eating Disorders Outline and Case Analysis

Eating Disorder Diagnoses: As for the DSM-IV-TR, the characteristics of these disorders are disturbances of eating behavior, such as eating too little, too much, or in an unhealthy manner that is extreme (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Biological components include hormonal deficiencies and excesses, as well as neural activity, which is abnormal. Individuals suffering from bulimia or anorexia have low levels of serotonin and abnormal brain structures. As for emotional components, disordered eating is a complex reaction to societal expectations or beliefs concerning one’s self-image. As for cognitive components, focus is on starvation or eating experiences and behavior after eating which reinforce one’s distorted thoughts about body images. Individuals with distorted self-images have a need of losing weight, or have a fear of gaining weight. As for behavioral components, these include binge eating and compensatory behaviors to prevent one from gaining weight. Eating disorders are the result of inappropriate experiences and thoughts, which reinforce extreme eating behaviors.

Disorder	Definition
Anorexia Nervosa	·         A disorder, whereas one refuses to maintain at least a minimal normal body weight (Hansell & Damour, 2008) ·         This involves extreme thinness, achieved often through self-starvation
Bulimia Nervosa	·         Is a disorder of binge eating and compensatory behaviors, which are an inappropriate means to avoid gaining weight
Eating Disorder NOS	·         This is a disorder with disordered eating, which fails in meeting the diagnostic criteria for bulimia nervosa or anorexia (Hansell & Damour, 2008)

Sexual Disorders: As for the DSM-IV-TR, these disorders involve sexual symptoms. As for biological components, medical illnesses (such as heart conditions and diabetes), aging, poor dieting, substance use, and several medications can contribute to these disorders. As for emotional components, research emphasizes deficient or deviant or deficient relationships. As for cognitive components, included are cognitive deficits, fantasies and related interpersonal schemas. Cognitive deficits occur in areas such as social skills, empathy, coping strategies, and impulse control. As for behavioral components, learned deviant sexual behavior occurs by observing, participating in, or experiencing such behavior. Rewards and punishments for sexual behavior, which are inappropriate, can lead to other sexual behaviors.

Disorder	Definition
Sexual Dysfunctions	·         These are disorders, which involve continual problems as for with orgasm, sexual response, or sexual interest
Sexual Desire Disorders	·         Hypoactive sexual desire, continual sex fantasies and desires in regards to sexual activity, which are deficient and cause interpersonal difficulty or distress (Hansell & Damour, 2008) ·          Hansell and Damour (2008), “persistent extreme aversion to, and avoidance of, genital sexual contact with a sexual partner, causing distress or interpersonal difficulty” (p. 374).
Sexual Arousal Disorders	·         Female sexual arousal disorder, the continual inability of maintaining or attaining, enough lubrication-swelling response of sexual excitement, which causes interpersonal difficulty or distress (Hansell & Damour, 2008) ·         Male erectile disorder, the continual inability of attaining, or maintaining, a sufficient erection; which, causes interpersonal difficulty or distress (Hansell & Damour, 2008)
Orgasmic Disorders	·         Female orgasmic disorder, continual absence of, or delayed orgasm that follows a sexual excitement phase that is normal; which, causes interpersonal difficulty or distress ·         Male orgasmic disorder, continual absence of, or delay in an orgasm that follows a sexual excitement phase that is normal; which, causes interpersonal difficulty or distress ·         Premature ejaculation, continual ejaculation with minimum sexual stimulation shortly after, on, or before penetration and before the one wishes to ejaculate, which causes interpersonal difficulty or distress (Hansell & Damour, 2008)
Sexual Pain Disorders	·         Vaginismus, continual involuntary spasms of the musculature, the vagina’s outer third, which disrupts sexual intercourse and causes interpersonal difficulty or distress ·         Dyspareunia, continual pain of the genitals affiliated with sexual intercourse, which causes interpersonal difficulty or distress
Paraphilias	·         Disorders that involve aberrant sexual preferences and relationships
Gender Identity Disorders	·         Disorders that involve intense discomfort with an individual’s biological sex and the desire to change his or her sex (Hansell & Damour, 2008)

Personality Disorders: As for the DSM-IV-TR, theses disorders have characteristics of rigid and extreme behavior, which causes distress and impairments in functioning. Biological components include abnormal structures of the brain, reduced white and gray matter volume, abnormalities of various neurotransmitter, and low levels of serotonin. Certain types of these disorders result from overlapping environmental and of genetic effects. Emotional components include the reflection of disruptive childhoods; whereas, children learn to depend on maladaptive defense mechanisms. As for cognitive components, notions of experiences of one’s childhood shape certain thought patterns and have a significant effect on patterns of the individual's behavior and perception which subsequently becomes the personality. As for behavioral components, these disorders are the result of maladaptive behaviors and thought processes.

Disorder	Definition
Paranoid Personality Disorder	·         This is a disorder with patterns of extreme suspiciousness and distrust
Schizoid Personality Disorder	·         A disorder with detachment patterns from social interactions and a limited scope of emotional expressions (Hansell & Damour, 2008)
Schizotypical Personality Disorder	·         A disorder with patterns of eccentricities of perceptual, cognitive, or behavior distortions, and severe discomfort within close relationships
Antisocial Personality Disorder	·         This is a disorder with patterns of violations of, and disregards for, other individual’s rights
Borderline Personality Disorder	·         A disorder with patterns of self-destructive behavior, and instability in self-image, emotions, interpersonal relationships, and impulsivity (Hansell & Damour, 2008)
Histrionic Personality Disorder	·         A disorder with patterns of attention seeking and emotionality, which is superficial and excessive
Narcissistic Personality Disorder	·         This is a disorder with patterns of a lack of empathy, the need of admiration, and grandiosity
Avoidant Personality Disorder	·         This is a disorder with patterns of emotions of inadequacy, hypersensitivity as for negative evaluation, and social inhibition
Dependent Personality Disorder	·         This is a disorder with patterns of clingy and submissive behavior related to a need, which is excessive in relation to be taken care of by other individuals
Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder	·         A disorder with preoccupied patterns of perfectionism, orderliness, and control at the expense of enjoyment, flexibility, and spontaneity (Hansell & Damour, 2008)

Case Analysis

          The case of David Reimer is one of the more so influential and controversial cases gender identity development. Reimer, christened originally as Bruce Reimer, born in Winnipeg in Manitoba, Canada, in 1965 as a pair of boys who were identical twin. Until the age of seven months, both twins had a healthy and blissful existence in an affectionate and caring environment. During this particular time, Reimer’s mother noticed skin on the tip of her sons’ penises, which made urination particularly difficult and painful. A condition referred to as phimosis. To correct this problem, the twins needed circumcisions, a routine medical procedure. However, Reimer suffered a botched circumcision; whereas burns occurred on his penis that rendered it lifeless and useless as well as lifeless. Meyer, Chapman, and Weaver (2009), “eventually, Bruce’s penis dried up and flaked away until there was no sign that he had ever had any sort of genital appendage” (p. 148).

          Instead of subjecting Reimer to several painful, and intricate surgeries during his youth to construct an artificial penis (phalloplasty or phallic reconstruction) his parents followed the advice of Dr. Money. This advice included raising Reimer as a female. Therefore, his name changed to Brenda as he underwent surgical castration, which removed both testicles and construction of an exterior vagina occurred at 22 months of age (Meyer, Chapman, and Weaver, 2009).  Throughout part of her life, Brenda fought the forced femininity change. At the age of 14 Brenda finally learned through her parents that she was a male and wanted to become a male, such as she was. She even changed her name to David and went through the surgeries necessary to become a male again anatomically. David fell in love, married, and started living a happy life but with the trauma of his childhood, suicide of his twin brother, unemployed, divorce from his wife, financial difficulties, and with an onset of depression David on the fifth of May 2004, sawed off a shotgun and used it to kill himself. David Reimer suffered from a sexual disorder, specifically, gender identity disorder.

Components of

          As for the DSM-IV-TR, gender identity disorder (GID) is a sexual disorder that involves server discomfort with an individual’s anatomical sex and the need to change his or her sex (Hansell & Damour, 2008). GID involves a disruption in one’s gender identity, whereas it shares a close relationship with sexuality. The three symptoms of GID are that of an individual’s psychological gender identity and biological sex are the exact opposite. As for one’s biological sex, one is extremely uncomfortable with it, and one with this disorder experiences significant impairment or distress in functioning (Hansell & Damour, 2008). There is still an uncertainty as for gender identity disorder’s origins and causes. However, David Reimer’s GID case is different from the normal case because he was born a male, which is eventually the sex he was surgically reassigned (Hansell & Damour, 2008).  

Biological

          Biological components of GID address inborn connections between it and temperament or behavioral tendencies. Males with GID typically have lower activity levels, which points to the genetic basis probability of temperamental differences. The mechanisms of genetically temperamental differences mechanism may involve the hormonal system that is an influence of several behaviors, which are sexual and gender-linked (Hansell & Damour, 2008). Certain experts suspect that postpubertal, postnatal, or prenatal hormonal anomalies may contribute to gender abnormalities that occur in GID; however, there is not any consistent evidence. However, there is preliminary evidence that brain structure differences in transsexual men in comparison to nontranssexual males. Hansell and Damour (2008), “Zhou and colleagues (1997) found that an area of the hypothalamus in six transsexual males was half the normal size of that in nontranssexual men, making it close to its typical size in women” (p. 400).

Emotional

          The emotional components of GID emphasize the role of emotional ill relationships between mothers and sons as for the development of GID in males. However, psychodynamic theorists disagree with the effects of the son and mother problem (Hansell & Damour, 2008). Greenson and Stoller held the belief that gratifying, and overly close mother and son relationships combined with a distant father, and son relationship were the feature elements that produce a male’s female identification. However, through the empirical studies of GID conducted by Coates and her colleagues found that the GID male/feminine interest and behaviors were attempts of connecting with a withdrawn, depressed mother, instead of a symbiosis of a mother who is overly gratifying.

Cognitive

            Cognitive components of GID point to one forming a concept of him or herself as either a male or female, which is a cognitive task. Certain theorists make the argument that gender identity can change because of a function of normal developments in one’s cognitive ability, specifically in logical thinking. Other cognitive factors of influence are the progresses of gender identity, such as providing one with accurate information in regard to how one decides gender.

Behavioral

          As for behavioral components, gender behavior, such as other behavior, is a result of the environment. Behavioral theorists have the belief that the featured cause of GID are sets of environmental reinforcements, which are a result of children learning cross-gender behavior that results in rewards and gender-consistent behavior that results in punishment. Cross-gender social reinforcement can contribute to GID.

Conclusion

            David Reimer suffered from a sexual disorder, specifically, gender identity disorder. Reimer’s gender identity disorder case is different from a typical GID case because he was a male, and that was the sex surgically reassigned to him. The environmental efforts of raising Reimer as a female rather than as his biological sex were the origin of his GID. Gender identity disorder (GID) has components of biological, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral components, which help in explaining why this disorder occurs. These components also overlap with one another.

Reference

Hansell, J., & Damour, L. (2008). Abnormal psychology (2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing.

Meyer, R., Chapman, L. K., & Weaver, C. M. (2009). Case studies in abnormal behavior. (8th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon.