Reference
Sunday, September 15, 2013
What effect does the environment have on intellectual differences in humans?
The environment has
different effects on intellectual different in humans. Donald O. Hebb thought
that the environment played a critical role in the development of intelligence
in humans (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). Hebb thought that there were two types
of environments that had an effect on learning, which are restricted
environments and enriched environments. Restricted environments have disabling
effects on early learning and the development of the nervous system (Olson
& Hergenhahn, 2013). Basically, these environments have disabling effects
as for intelligence. and development. Enriched environments with a wide variety
of sensory and motor experience have the potential to enhance development
(Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). For individuals in enriched environments,
learning can occur faster and develop is well balanced. Enriched environments
also have a positive effect that restricted environments do not, which is
reversing the effects of restricted environments. When one experiences damage
in a restricted environments it can be reversed by transitioning into enriched
environments.
Cognitive Theorist
Jean Piaget, Swiss developmental psychologist and philosopher whose
career had a profound effect on both education and psychology. Throughout his
career, Piaget made several contributions to learning and to cognition. There
is also a very important model developed by Piaget and theoretical concepts associated
with that model. This model developed by Piaget still has a modern-day
relevancy.
Contributions to Learning and to Cognition
Piaget made several contributions to learning and to cognition by
developing theories that helped understand the cognitive differences between
adults and children. He provided support for the idea of children and adults
think differently. Piaget’s work also generated and increased interest in
developmental and cognitive psychology. Students in education and psychology
study the theories of Piaget to understand learning and cognition. Applying
Piaget's theory of cognitive development to the education of children is another
contribution that enables the effective teaching of children (Kuhn, 1979). One
last contribution of Piaget’s is the creation of the International Center for
Genetic Epistemology, which occurred in 1955.
Model associated with Piaget
Jean Piaget developed the theory of cognitive development, which
distinguishes the four primary cognitive structures that correspond to four
stages of intellectual development. The stages are in turn divided into
distinctive sub-stages in which distinctive cognitive abilities emerge. These
stages are sensorimotor stage (birth to about two years), preoperational thinking
(about two to seven years), concrete operations (about seven to 11 or 12 years),
and formal operations (about 11 or 12 to 14 or 14 years).
Sensorimotor
Stage
This
stage occurs from birth to about two years. A characteristic of this stage is the
absence of language; however, the stage is not characterized by thinking, such as
Piaget viewed thinking (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). Basically, infants, and
toddlers do not have words for things therefore objects do not exist when a
child is not interacting with the objects directly. Strictly sensorimotor are children’s
environmental interactions, what children deal with is the here, and present.
Egocentric, refers to how children are at this stage, and they see every, and
anything with themselves as a frame of reference (Olson & Hergenhahn,
2013). Also at this stage a child’s psychological world is the only one of existence.
The concept of permanence for a child develops toward this stages end;
therefore children start to realize that objects still exist when they are no
longer experiencing those objects.
Preoperational
Thinking
This stage occurs
from about two years to seven years. In this stage there are two subdivisions,
which are preconceptual thinking (occurring basically two to four years) and the
period of intuitive thought (occurring basically four to seven years) (Olson
& Hergenhahn, 2013). During preconceptual thinking, children start the
formation of rudimentary concepts. Olson and Hergenhahn (2013), “they begin to
classify things in certain classes because of their similarity, but they make a
number of mistakes because of their concepts; thus, all men are “Daddy,” all
women are “Mommy,” and all toys they see are “mine” (p. 275). Logic at this
stage is transductive, instead of deductive or inductive. During the period of
intuitive thought a child does not solve problems in accordance with any logical
rules but rather intuitively. Also during this period a child lacks the ability
to develop conversation. The “term” conversation refers to the ability of
realizing that length, substance, number or area remains constant; even if presented
in different ways.
Concrete
Operations
This stage occurs from about seven years to 11 or 12 years. During
which, children develop the abilities to conserve, deal with classes adequately.
As well as develop the ability to deal with number concepts, and seriation, such
as in the ability to arrange certain things from largest to smallest or
smallest to largest (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). A child also has the
ability of performing complex operations on problems; however, the problems cannot
be abstract; they have to be concrete. During this stage, the thought processes
of a child direct toward observable existing events.
Formal
Operations
This stage occurs from about 11 or 12 years to 14 or 15 years. Children
can deal with hypothetical situations, and his or her thought processes are not
exclusively bound by what is existing and immediate at this stage (Olson &
Hergenhahn, 2013). At this stage thinking is as logical as possible, and one’s
mental apparatus is as sophisticated as possible. Although there is the ability
to direct this apparatus toward the solution one’s never ceasing problems throughout
life (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013).
Theoretical Concepts Associated with the Model
Theoretical concepts developed by Piaget are intelligence, schemata,
assimilation, and accommodation, equilibration, and interiorization. Piaget
described intelligence as a dynamic trait because the availability of an
intelligent act changes as an organism biologically matures and can gain experience
(Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). Piaget thought of intelligence as a necessary
part of any organism because every organism seeks intelligent conditions, which
are beneficial to the survival of said organisms. Exactly how intelligence exhibits
itself during any point and time inevitable varies as conditions vary (Olson
& Hergenhahn, 2013). A schema, as thought of by Piaget is an element in cognitive
structure of an organism. An organism’s available schemata, determines how said
organism may respond to the physical environment (Olson & Hergenhahn,
2013).
Olson & Hergenhahn (2013), “schemata can manifest themselves
in overt behavior, as in the case of the grasping reflex, or they can manifest
themselves covertly” (p. 271). Assimilation and accommodation identify two types
of learning experience and both are involve the storage and acquisition of
information (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). Basically, assimilation is a static
type of learning, which has limitations because of the present cognitive
structure, and accommodation is a continuing steadily growth of the cognitive
structure, which changes the character of any subsequent learning (Olson &
Hergenhahn, 2013).
Equilibration, as thought of by Piaget is the motivating force
behind intellectual growth. Piaget made the assumption that every organism had
an inherent tendency to develop a harmonious relationship between their
environment and themselves. Equilibration is the inherent inclination to organize
one’s experiences ensuring maximal adaptation. Practically, equilibration is the
continual drive toward balance or equilibrium. Interiorization is a gradual
decrease in dependence on the physical environment and the increased utilization
of cognitive structures (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). It is the process that
adaptive actions develop into increasingly covert instead of overt.
Modern-day Relevancy of the Model
Today, areas of psychology, sociology, education, and genetics
continue to study Piaget's theories. Piaget’s work continues to contribute to the
understanding of cognitive development in children and how to educate children
effectively. Earlier researchers often viewed children as version of adults but
smaller versions. Through Piaget’s theories he helped to demonstrate childhood is
a special and important human development period. Piaget’s work is influential and
continues to influence students and psychologists.
Conclusion
Developmental psychologist Piaget’s career and work had an effect
on education and psychology in a profound way. Piaget made several
contributions to learning and to cognition, such as his stages of intellectual
development, which describe the cognitive development of children. Piaget’s
models and theoretical concepts helped to understand the cognitive abilities of
children; who indeed differ from adults and their cognitive abilities differ. Said
models and theoretical concepts still have a modern-day relevancy all these
years later.
Kuhn, D. (1979). The application of piaget's theory of
cognitive development to education. Harvard Educational Review, 49(3), 340-60.
Wednesday, September 11, 2013
According to Hebb, what is the difference between childhood learning and adult learning?
Donald Olding Hebb,
Canadian psychologist thought there were two types of learning. The first type
of learning occurs during infancy and early childhood, and involves the gradual
buildup of phase sequences and cell assemblies (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013).
The result of this early type of learning is that events and objects in the
environment have neurological representation. A child can think of an event or
object, or a series of events and objects when not physically present during
this neural development. The second type learning is a more perceptual, rapid,
and insightful learning that occurs in and characterizes adult life. It
involves the rearrangement of phase sequences and cell assemblies instead of
their development. Olson and Hergenhahn (2013), "once cell assemblies and
phase sequences have been developed early in life, subsequent learning
typically involves their rearrangement" (p. 373). Basically, children
learn gradually, while adults learn at a more rapid pace. This is because phase
sequences and cell assemblies are developing in children but are already
developed in adult and can be rearranged in nearly an infinite number of
configurations.
Reference
Sunday, September 8, 2013
Are there optimal conditions for learning? If so, what are they? If not, why not?
I definitely think there are optimal conditions for learning. Two
types of optimal conditions that can affect learning are biological and
environmental. As for biological, the more an individual places a value of
emotion on information he or she needs or wants to remember, the better the
chance of recalling that information. Although, placing to much emotion or
overly averse emotion on information may make it difficult to remember. As
for environmental, one needs to be as close to his or her environment as
possible during learning (a room with minimal background noise) as to the
environment when an individual needs to recall learned information; which
enables an individual to have a better memory for recalling learned
information. Certain individuals think watching TV is okay when studying but
when it is time to recall learned information in a classroom there will be no
TV. Basically, order in an individual's environment is beneficial for learning.
What implications do Piaget’s stages of development have on education?
Piaget's stages of development had a major effect on education.
Piaget’s stages of development are sensorimotor stage (occurring from birth to
about two years of age), preoperational thinking (occurring from about two
years of age to seven years of age), concrete operations (occurring from about
seven years of age to eleven or twelve years of age), and formal operations
(occurring from about eleven or twelve years of age to fourteen or fifteen years
of age) (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). The educational implications of
Piaget’s stages are that the focus should be placed the process of a child’s
thinking, recognizing the role of a child’s self-initiated, active involvement
in activities of learning, deemphasizing practices pinpointed at making a child
adult-like in his or her thinking, and accepting individual differences in
developmental progress (Slavin, 1991). Piaget's stages focused on the idea of
developmentally appropriate education with materials, instruction,
environments, and curriculum suitable for a child in terms of his or her
emotional and social needs, and cognitive and physical abilities.
Reference
Olson, M. H. & Hergenhahn, B. R. (2013). An introduction to
theories of learning (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Slavin, R.E. (1991). Educational Psychology: Theory
and Practice (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Tuesday, September 3, 2013
Operant Conditioning
B.F Skinner based his work on the work of Edward Thorndike who developed
the law of effect theory (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). Through his work Skinner
went on to identify fundamental principles of learning, based on experiments
with pigeons and rats. From these experiments, Skinner developed an explanation
as for how humans learn behaviors or change behaviors, and went on to infer that
patterns of reinforcement shape behavior, which is operant conditioning. Comparing
and contrasting positive and negative reinforcement in operant conditioning gives
an understanding of how both are a necessity in operant conditioning. Both positive
and negative reinforcement are a necessity in operant conditioning; one form of
reinforcement is more effective than the other. Several reasons exist to why
one form of reinforcement is more effective than the other. A given scenario
can show how to apply operant conditioning to shape behavior and how the
creation of a reinforcement schedule can apply to a certain selected behavior.
Theory of Operant Conditioning
B. F. Skinner developed the “term” operant conditioning in 1937 (Staddon
& Cerutti, 2003). Skinner's theory of operant conditioning explains how organisms
acquire learned behaviors that they exhibit. The main focus of operant
conditioning is to use reinforcement as a reward or punishment to increase or
decrease the likelihood of behavior (Staddon & Cerutti, 2003). Operant conditioning
is a means or method of learning, which occurs through or by reward and punishment
for an organism’s behavior (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). Basically, a learner
receives either reward or punishment for behavior. The learner actively has to participate
in and perform a certain type of behavior to receive either a reward or punishment.
In operant conditioning, behavior, and the resulting consequences of said
behavior are the emphasis. Therefore, there is an association in relation to behavior
and the consequence of said behavior.
A belief of Skinner was that reinforcement makes an organism what it
will be. Basically, he believed that reinforcement controlled behavior and that
there is a need of reinforcement to condition behavior. Reinforcement is either
a reward or punishment, depending on the displayed behavior. Skinner's theory of
operant conditioning explains how organisms acquire learned behaviors they
exhibit.
Positive and Negative Reinforcement
In operant conditioning, reinforcement is a means to either
increase or decrease the likelihood of which a behavior occurs again (Olson &
Hergenhahn, 2013). Reinforcement is a necessity of operant conditioning and a
necessity of the learning process. Basically, reinforcement is a tool of
operant conditioning either positive or negative. When positive reinforcement
occurs, the outcome of behavior is desirable, and as such, behavior strengthens
by a desirable outcome, as in the case of positive reinforcement following desirable
behavior. When negative reinforcement occurs, an increase in behavior occurs to
remove an averse stimulus, and said behavior strengthens when the removal of
the averse stimulus occurs. Therefore, a positive reinforcement is an addition
of a positive consequence that follows a certain behavior, although a negative
reinforcement is the removal of a negative consequence that follows a certain
behavior. Both positive and negative reinforcements foster the likelihood of
the reoccurrence of a behavior preceding a consequence.
Effective Reinforcement
It seems that positive reinforcement is a more effective type of
reinforcement, instead of negative reinforcement. Positive reinforcement has a positive
emotional effect, and it identifies desirable behavior and consequences of
desired behavior. To institute a negative reinforcement, this first involves
the introduction of an averse stimulus between the operant, and the response
because the withdrawal of an averse stimulus is what makes negative
reinforcement effective. Therefore, a form of punishment or the introduction of
a negative reinforcer is necessary in a situation to remove the negative
reinforcer. One argument of Skinner was against the use of punishment because
punishment last only as long as one enforces it (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013).
Punishment does not always result in desirable behavior. Therefore, positive reinforcement
for desirable behavior is a more effective reinforcer.
Operant Conditioning
Scenario
As a divorced single parent of three children, ages 11, nine, and
five; often the opportunity arises to apply operant conditioning to shape
behavior. As the children are in school implementing rewards, and punishment to
reinforce desirable behavior and desirable grades in school is necessary. If
bad behavior was not reported by the children’s teachers and if the children received
weekly satisfactory grades on weekly assignments; weekly allowance was the
reward, and for satisfactory progress reports and report cards extra allowance
was the reward. The punishment is no allowance for bad behavior or
unsatisfactory grades. What occurs with the children is a form positive
reinforcement of operant conditioning. The desired behavior in school of each
of the children and the desirable grades increased in order for them to receive
a reward.
Reinforcement Schedule for
Scenario
As for the operant conditioning scenario, positive reinforcement
of desirable behavior and desirable grades receives a weekly reward of
allowance. This is an example of a continuing reinforcement schedule, which is an
effective reinforcement schedule because the children understood that desirable
behavior and desirable grades received a reward (allowance), and that
undesirable behavior and undesirable grades resulted in no reward (allowance)
or punishment. The emphasis in this scenario is on the reward of allowance instead
of the punishment of not receiving an allowance. This helps the children stay
focused on positive reinforcement (receiving a reward) instead of negative
punishment (not receiving a reward).
Conclusion
Skinner’s development of the operant conditioning theory was influential
in psychology at the time of its development and still to this day. Operant
conditioning, lead to the importance of how reinforcement as either a reward or
punishment increases or decreases the likelihood of behavior. Also in operant
conditioning through reward or punishment learning occurs. Two type of
reinforcement exist, which are positive and negative reinforcement. Both forms
help to increase or decrease the likelihood of behavior; positive reinforcement
is the more effective type of reinforcement. The given scenario is an example in
which applying operant conditioning shapes behavior. Creating a reinforcement
schedule for the selected behavior increases the future likelihood that the children’s
desirable behavior continues.
Staddon, J. E. R., & Cerutti, D. T. (2003). Operant
conditioning. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 115- 44. Retrieved from
http://search.proquest.com/docview/205795898?accountid=458
Monday, September 2, 2013
Introduction to Learning
In modern psychology, learning is an important topic. To
understand learning, one must also understand the role of behavior in relation
to learning. In psychology, classical conditioning, and instrumental
conditioning are two types of learning that explain changes in behavior. The
relationship between learning and cognition is necessary and their relationship
helps to understand learning. With a definition of learning along with an
understanding of behavior, the types of learning, and cognition, one can
understand what learning is.
Definition of Learning
The breadth of learning unfortunately results in no agreed upon
definition of learning. There is no definition of learning in which theorists
agree that includes the phenomena they want to call learning that excludes
other phenomena. The following definition is a fairly good definition: Learning
is a relatively permanent change in behavioral potentiality resulting from the
occurrence of reinforced practice (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). Further
examination of this definition can provide more details about what learning is.
This definition begins with a relatively permanent change that refers to
learning as a relatively stable change in behavior occurring within an
organism; in opposition to more transient states like moods (Mikulas, 1977).
This behavioral change is neither transitory nor fixed, and this change may
occur immediately or may not; therefore it occurs at a later time.
When the definition of learning is a change in behavior potential,
this pinpoints the distinction between learning and performance. Learning is
always translated into measurable behavior. As for performance, this refers to
the translation of this potentiality into behavior or what an organism does.
The last part of the definition refers to reinforced practice. A change in
behavior or behavior potentiality is the result of either an experience or
practice (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). The reinforcement of an experience or
practice must occur to learn a behavior; therefore if reinforcement does not
occur learning will not occur.
The Role of Behavior in
Relation to Learning
Olson and Hergenhahn (2013), “a science requires an observable,
measurable subject matter, and in the science of psychology, that subject
matter is behavior” (p. 2). Expression of what is of study in psychology occurs
through covert or overt behavior; although not all behavior of study is learning
(Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). Studying behavior occurs so to make inferences
in regard to the process thought to be the observable behavioral changes. This process
is learning. Many learning theorists are in agreement as for the study of the learning
process that may not occur directly; instead only inferences may occur as for its
nature from changes in behavior (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). Taking exception
to this contention was B. F. Skinner, who thought behavioral changes are indeed
learning, therefore no need to infer a further process, although other
theorists thought behavioral changes are indeed a result of learning.
Except for Skinner and the followers of Skinner, the majority of
learning theorists think that learning is a process that mediates behavior,
therefore learning occurs as the result of particular experiences and comes
before changes in behavior.
Types of Learning
Learning, of course, is a term used to describe the changes in
behavior potentiality, which result from experience; however, conditioning is a
more defined term used to describe procedures which modify behavior (Olson
& Hergenhahn, 2013). Therefore, there are two types of conditioning, which
are instrumental and classical conditioning, several theorists determined that
at a minimum there are two types of learning. These two types of learning are
understood in the same terms of instrumental and classical conditioning. In instrumental
conditioning there is the relationship between behavior and reinforcement,
therefore a behavior is present or occurs before reinforcement (Olson &
Hergenhahn, 2013). In this type of conditioning, an organism’s behavior is “instrumental”
when getting what that organism wants, which is the reinforcer (Olson &
Hergenhahn, 2013). An example of instrumental conditioning is to reward an
individual for good behavior; therefore an individual receives a reward if the behavior
is instrumental for said reward.
In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus that does not
initiate a response is pairs with a stimulus that initiates a response
therefore the pairing allows the neutral stimulus to initiate the response. Basically,
a conditioned stimulus (CS) is previously a neutral stimulus that after pairing
with an unconditioned stimulus (UC), eventually initiates a conditioned
response (CR). Ivan Pavlov’s research with dogs is an example of classical
conditioning. First, Pavlov presented a dog with food, which caused salivation.
Then Pavlov would ring a bell and present the dog with food, therefore the dog
would start to salivate when the bell was rung. Both instrumental and classical
conditioning result in learning but the processes for learning differ. The
difference is that the focus of instrumental conditioning is on using either punishment
or reinforcement as a means to increase or decrease behavior, whereas classical
conditioning makes an association between a stimulus and an involuntary
response.
The Relationship between
Learning and Cognition
As stated previously learning is a relatively permanent change in
behavioral potentiality resulting from the occurrence of reinforced practice
(Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). Cognition is mental processes, which includes memory,
attention, memory, reasoning, decision making, language, and learning. Learning
and cognition share a relationship because learning involves cognition and
cognition involves learning. Basically learning and cognition are integral
parts of each other. Learning occurs after cognitive processes. The bases of learning
theories are cognitive associations between stimuli and responses. Theories of
learning incorporate cognitive associations into the basic stimulus and response
associations. Approaches developed by cognitive theorists focus on cognitive
processes instead of external stimuli, reinforcements, and responses. Cognitive
theorists believe that first, there should be an understanding of cognitive
processes, therefore this provides a comprehensive understanding of learning.
Conclusion
Learning is a process of importance in psychology. It is a
relatively permanent change in behavioral potentiality, which occurs as a
result of reinforced practice (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). The role of
behavior in relation to learning is that behavior provides a measurable and
observable means to study learning. Two types of learning are instrumental and
classical conditioning. Instrumental and classical conditioning result in
learning but the processes for learning differ because instrumental
conditioning makes an association between voluntary behaviors and consequences,
whereas classical conditioning involves making associations between involuntary
responses and stimuli. The relationship between learning and cognition is that learning
involves cognition and cognition is an integral part of learning.
Olson, M. H. & Hergenhahn, B. R. (2013). An
introduction to theories of learning (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Pearson.
Mikulas, W.L. (1977). Psychology of Learning. Chicago,
IL: Nelson-Hall.
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