Social Psychology Definition

          Myers (2010), “social psychology lies at psychology’s boundary with sociology” (p. 4). Social psychology is a young discipline of science, whereas the reporting of its first experiments occurred in 1898, and the appearance of its first texts did not occur until before and after 1900 (Myers, 2010). The current form of social psychology emerged in the 1930s, and World War II was the point where it became the field it is known as today Myers, 2010). Social psychology has a specific definition, which separates it from other disciplines of psychology, and details how it differs from other related disciplines. Social psychology also has different types of research. By understanding the definition, differences from other related disciplines, and research methods, one can form an understanding of social psychology.  

Definition Social Psychology

          Myers (2010), “social psychology is a science that studies the influences of our situations, with special attention to how we view and affect one another” (p. 4). Therefore, it is a scientific study of how individuals think about, relate to, and influence each other (Myers, 2010). Components of social psychology include social influences, social relations, and social thinking. Social influences include an individual’s culture and pressure of conforming. Social relations include an individual’s attractions, intimacy, aggressions, and prejudices. Social thinking involves how an individual sees himself or herself and other individual around himself or herself. It also involves an individual’s attitudes, judgments, and beliefs. Important in social psychology are attitudes, or how an individual views a particular individual, concept, belief, or behavior.  

          Within social psychology, social psychologists try understanding the means by which the realistic, implied, or imagined presence of other individuals influences the feelings, thoughts, and behaviors of others (Thoits, 1995). Social psychologists use research to inform individuals and society how social interactions affect individuals and society. Social psychology lies at the intersection between the disciplines of psychology (the study of behavior and the mind) and sociology (the study of social behavior). Within social psychology, psychologists, and sociologists regularly cite the theories and research of each other, and draw from the theories and research of each other.

Social Psychology and Other Related Disciplines Differences

          Within psychology, social psychology is one branch, and it shares a close relationship with personality psychology. In comparison with personality psychology, social psychology is more so focused on the differences of individuals and less on how said individuals affect and view each other in general as in personality psychology (Myers, 2010). Social psychology assumes situations are the primary factor as for behavior. The intention of social psychologists is to relate behavior to environmental factors through research. Personality psychology differs because of the assumption of the primary force behind individual behavior is the disposition of an individual in a situation and not the situation itself. Social psychology also shares a close relationship with sociology. Intertwined are sociology and social psychology, although there are differences. In comparison with sociology (the study of individuals in societies and groups), the focus of social psychology is more so on individuals and uses experimentation more (Myers, 2010).

          Social psychology is a means to expand upon studies of sociologists. Although sociologists study individuals in groups, social psychologists focus on the individual in a group and use experimentation more often. Social factors affecting an individual are what sociologists study. While, identifying why said factors have effects are what social psychologist perform (Thoits, 1995). Sociologists perform studies to understand how situations, relationships, and characteristics influence an individual’s behaviors, feelings, and thoughts. Although social psychologists, provide an explanation as for why and how factors have an effect on an individual. Social psychologists try understanding how a group arrives at decisions, whereas sociologists try explaining how the characteristics of an individual have an effect on the decision a group makes. Social psychologist, focus on obedience whereas sociologists attempt to explain deviant behaviors (Thoits, 1995). Social psychology is different from related disciplines although it is shares a close relationship with one discipline, which is sociology.  

Types of Research in Social Psychology

          Social psychology uses different types of research to how individuals influence, relate to, and think about each other (Myers, 2010). These types of research enable testing of hypothesis and theories by looking for the relationships among differing variables (Myers, 2010). The types of research in social psychology are descriptive, correlational, and experimental research. Descriptive research’s point is to depict what currently exists in a population or group. This type of research cannot determine the relationship between two variables occurs; however, there is the ability to describing what exists in a given population. Through correlational research, social psychologist study relationships that naturally occur among variables, and attempt to explain these relationships (Myers, 2010). However, it lacks the ability to distinguish causation between variables (Myers, 2010). Methods to gather data for correlational research include directly observing behaviors, compiling earlier study research, and surveys. Experimental research can determine cause and affect between variables through its studies; by using by the using of independent variables, dependent variables, and a manipulated experimental factor. Therefore, by only changing the independent variable and keeping the dependent variable constant, social psychologists can isolate the specific affect that the first variable has on the second variable. Descriptive research, correlational research, and experimental research are critical to social psychology.

Conclusion

          Social psychology is a young discipline of science and is the scientific study of how individuals influence, relate to, and think about each other (Myers, 2010). Social psychology differs from the disciplines of personality psychology and sociology in varies ways. Three types of research used in social psychology are descriptive research, correlational research, and experimental research. Social psychology is an important discipline in psychology because of its study of individuals’ behavior as related to social situations.

Reference

Myers, D. G. (2010). Social psychology (10th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw Hill.

Thoits, P. A. (1995). Social Psychology: The Interplay between Sociology and Psychology. Social Forces, 73(4), 1231.

Parents, teachers, peers, and others provide memorable appraisals throughout life. When you were growing up, who in your life provided the most positive and negative appraisals? How have appraisals threatened or boosted your self-esteem? How do they affect you today?

          As I was growing up I had a similar childhood background as another individual who also had no siblings but he was raised by both parents; while I was raised by only one parent. That individual who was a single parent, provided the most positive appraisals in my life; he was my father. Growing up I traveled frequently between Australia and America, and between two different states, which were California, and Texas. Therefore, I often lost friends, remained friends with some individuals, gained new friends, and changed schools frequently. During these changes in my life, my father provided love, support, encouragement, and enjoyment throughout my development as a child until his death at my age of 17. I am not sure who provided the most negative appraisals in my life because the positive appraisals provided by my father were very overshadowing. Who I developed into today is a result of the appraisals provided by my father, which boosted my self-esteem and still has an effect on my self-esteem today. As of the affect today, I am the same man as my father; as for how I live my life, how I act as a father, and as for how I provide appraisals for my three children, which also provides a boost for their self-esteem.

Scientific research comes in many shapes and forms. Correlation research tells us if factors are related to each other. Experimental research determines if one factor causes another. Social research, presents an immediate challenge because of the infinite number of human variables. Besides the number of variables, what factors are challenges to social research?

          Social research is research conducted by social scientists. I think there are several factors that are challenges to social research. One of the more important factors is for a researcher to determine which research method to use. Research methods include correlational or experimental methods. Myers (2010), "correlational studies, sometimes conducted with systematic survey methods, discern the relationship between variables, such as between amount of education and amount of income" (p. 29). As for experimental, this is a means to conduct experiments, which explore cause and effect. Both correlational and experimental methods have an important effect on the outcome of the research. Other factors that are a challenge to social research are where research is conducted, ethics and bias. As for where research is conducted, it is either performed in a laboratory or in the environment. As for ethics, they are moral principles that guide how research is conducted, and protect the participant of research. If ethics are not followed research becomes invalid and unreliable. As for bias, once displayed it hinders the outcome of social research. Social research depends heavily on ethical and unbiased research.      

Reference

Myers, D. G. (2010). Social psychology (10th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw Hill.

According to Hebb, what is the difference between childhood learning and adult learning?

          Donald Olding Hebb, Canadian psychologist thought there were two types of learning. The first type of learning occurs during infancy and early childhood, and involves the gradual buildup of phase sequences and cell assemblies (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). The result of this early type of learning is that events and objects in the environment have neurological representation. A child can think of an event or object, or a series of events and objects when not physically present during this neural development. The second type learning is a more perceptual, rapid, and insightful learning that occurs in and characterizes adult life. It involves the rearrangement of phase sequences and cell assemblies instead of their development. Olson and Hergenhahn (2013), "once cell assemblies and phase sequences have been developed early in life, subsequent learning typically involves their rearrangement" (p. 373). Basically, children learn gradually, while adults learn at a more rapid pace. This is because phase sequences and cell assemblies are developing in children but are already developed in adult and can be rearranged in nearly an infinite number of configurations.

Reference

Olson, M. H. & Hergenhahn, B. R. (2013). An introduction to theories of learning (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

What effect does the environment have on intellectual differences in humans?

          The environment has different effects on intellectual different in humans. Donald O. Hebb thought that the environment played a critical role in the development of intelligence in humans (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). Hebb thought that there were two types of environments that had an effect on learning, which are restricted environments and enriched environments. Restricted environments have disabling effects on early learning and the development of the nervous system (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). Basically, these environments have disabling effects as for intelligence. and development. Enriched environments with a wide variety of sensory and motor experience have the potential to enhance development (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). For individuals in enriched environments, learning can occur faster and develop is well balanced. Enriched environments also have a positive effect that restricted environments do not, which is reversing the effects of restricted environments. When one experiences damage in a restricted environments it can be reversed by transitioning into enriched environments.

Reference

Olson, M. H. & Hergenhahn, B. R. (2013). An introduction to theories of learning (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Cognitive Theorist

          Jean Piaget, Swiss developmental psychologist and philosopher whose career had a profound effect on both education and psychology. Throughout his career, Piaget made several contributions to learning and to cognition. There is also a very important model developed by Piaget and theoretical concepts associated with that model. This model developed by Piaget still has a modern-day relevancy.

Contributions to Learning and to Cognition

          Piaget made several contributions to learning and to cognition by developing theories that helped understand the cognitive differences between adults and children. He provided support for the idea of children and adults think differently. Piaget’s work also generated and increased interest in developmental and cognitive psychology. Students in education and psychology study the theories of Piaget to understand learning and cognition. Applying Piaget's theory of cognitive development to the education of children is another contribution that enables the effective teaching of children (Kuhn, 1979). One last contribution of Piaget’s is the creation of the International Center for Genetic Epistemology, which occurred in 1955.  

Model associated with Piaget

          Jean Piaget developed the theory of cognitive development, which distinguishes the four primary cognitive structures that correspond to four stages of intellectual development. The stages are in turn divided into distinctive sub-stages in which distinctive cognitive abilities emerge. These stages are sensorimotor stage (birth to about two years), preoperational thinking (about two to seven years), concrete operations (about seven to 11 or 12 years), and formal operations (about 11 or 12 to 14 or 14 years).

Sensorimotor Stage

            This stage occurs from birth to about two years. A characteristic of this stage is the absence of language; however, the stage is not characterized by thinking, such as Piaget viewed thinking (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). Basically, infants, and toddlers do not have words for things therefore objects do not exist when a child is not interacting with the objects directly. Strictly sensorimotor are children’s environmental interactions, what children deal with is the here, and present. Egocentric, refers to how children are at this stage, and they see every, and anything with themselves as a frame of reference (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). Also at this stage a child’s psychological world is the only one of existence. The concept of permanence for a child develops toward this stages end; therefore children start to realize that objects still exist when they are no longer experiencing those objects.

Preoperational Thinking

            This stage occurs from about two years to seven years. In this stage there are two subdivisions, which are preconceptual thinking (occurring basically two to four years) and the period of intuitive thought (occurring basically four to seven years) (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). During preconceptual thinking, children start the formation of rudimentary concepts. Olson and Hergenhahn (2013), “they begin to classify things in certain classes because of their similarity, but they make a number of mistakes because of their concepts; thus, all men are “Daddy,” all women are “Mommy,” and all toys they see are “mine” (p. 275). Logic at this stage is transductive, instead of deductive or inductive. During the period of intuitive thought a child does not solve problems in accordance with any logical rules but rather intuitively. Also during this period a child lacks the ability to develop conversation. The “term” conversation refers to the ability of realizing that length, substance, number or area remains constant; even if presented in different ways.  

Concrete Operations

          This stage occurs from about seven years to 11 or 12 years. During which, children develop the abilities to conserve, deal with classes adequately. As well as develop the ability to deal with number concepts, and seriation, such as in the ability to arrange certain things from largest to smallest or smallest to largest (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). A child also has the ability of performing complex operations on problems; however, the problems cannot be abstract; they have to be concrete. During this stage, the thought processes of a child direct toward observable existing events.

Formal Operations

          This stage occurs from about 11 or 12 years to 14 or 15 years. Children can deal with hypothetical situations, and his or her thought processes are not exclusively bound by what is existing and immediate at this stage (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). At this stage thinking is as logical as possible, and one’s mental apparatus is as sophisticated as possible. Although there is the ability to direct this apparatus toward the solution one’s never ceasing problems throughout life (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013).

Theoretical Concepts Associated with the Model

          Theoretical concepts developed by Piaget are intelligence, schemata, assimilation, and accommodation, equilibration, and interiorization. Piaget described intelligence as a dynamic trait because the availability of an intelligent act changes as an organism biologically matures and can gain experience (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). Piaget thought of intelligence as a necessary part of any organism because every organism seeks intelligent conditions, which are beneficial to the survival of said organisms. Exactly how intelligence exhibits itself during any point and time inevitable varies as conditions vary (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). A schema, as thought of by Piaget is an element in cognitive structure of an organism. An organism’s available schemata, determines how said organism may respond to the physical environment (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013).

          Olson & Hergenhahn (2013), “schemata can manifest themselves in overt behavior, as in the case of the grasping reflex, or they can manifest themselves covertly” (p. 271). Assimilation and accommodation identify two types of learning experience and both are involve the storage and acquisition of information (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). Basically, assimilation is a static type of learning, which has limitations because of the present cognitive structure, and accommodation is a continuing steadily growth of the cognitive structure, which changes the character of any subsequent learning (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013).

          Equilibration, as thought of by Piaget is the motivating force behind intellectual growth. Piaget made the assumption that every organism had an inherent tendency to develop a harmonious relationship between their environment and themselves. Equilibration is the inherent inclination to organize one’s experiences ensuring maximal adaptation. Practically, equilibration is the continual drive toward balance or equilibrium. Interiorization is a gradual decrease in dependence on the physical environment and the increased utilization of cognitive structures (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). It is the process that adaptive actions develop into increasingly covert instead of overt.   

Modern-day Relevancy of the Model

          Today, areas of psychology, sociology, education, and genetics continue to study Piaget's theories. Piaget’s work continues to contribute to the understanding of cognitive development in children and how to educate children effectively. Earlier researchers often viewed children as version of adults but smaller versions. Through Piaget’s theories he helped to demonstrate childhood is a special and important human development period. Piaget’s work is influential and continues to influence students and psychologists.

Conclusion

          Developmental psychologist Piaget’s career and work had an effect on education and psychology in a profound way. Piaget made several contributions to learning and to cognition, such as his stages of intellectual development, which describe the cognitive development of children. Piaget’s models and theoretical concepts helped to understand the cognitive abilities of children; who indeed differ from adults and their cognitive abilities differ. Said models and theoretical concepts still have a modern-day relevancy all these years later.

 Reference

Olson, M. H. & Hergenhahn, B. R. (2013). An introduction to theories of learning (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Kuhn, D. (1979). The application of piaget's theory of cognitive development to education. Harvard Educational Review, 49(3), 340-60.

According to Hebb, what is the difference between childhood learning and adult learning?

      Donald Olding Hebb, Canadian psychologist thought there were two types of learning. The first type of learning occurs during infancy and early childhood, and involves the gradual buildup of phase sequences and cell assemblies (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). The result of this early type of learning is that events and objects in the environment have neurological representation. A child can think of an event or object, or a series of events and objects when not physically present during this neural development. The second type learning is a more perceptual, rapid, and insightful learning that occurs in and characterizes adult life. It involves the rearrangement of phase sequences and cell assemblies instead of their development. Olson and Hergenhahn (2013), "once cell assemblies and phase sequences have been developed early in life, subsequent learning typically involves their rearrangement" (p. 373). Basically, children learn gradually, while adults learn at a more rapid pace. This is because phase sequences and cell assemblies are developing in children but are already developed in adult and can be rearranged in nearly an infinite number of configurations.

Reference

Olson, M. H. & Hergenhahn, B. R. (2013). An introduction to theories of learning (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Are there optimal conditions for learning? If so, what are they? If not, why not?

          I definitely think there are optimal conditions for learning. Two types of optimal conditions that can affect learning are biological and environmental. As for biological, the more an individual places a value of emotion on information he or she needs or wants to remember, the better the chance of recalling that information. Although, placing to much emotion or overly averse emotion on information may make it difficult to remember. As for environmental, one needs to be as close to his or her environment as possible during learning (a room with minimal background noise) as to the environment when an individual needs to recall learned information; which enables an individual to have a better memory for recalling learned information. Certain individuals think watching TV is okay when studying but when it is time to recall learned information in a classroom there will be no TV. Basically, order in an individual's environment is beneficial for learning.

What implications do Piaget’s stages of development have on education?

          Piaget's stages of development had a major effect on education. Piaget’s stages of development are sensorimotor stage (occurring from birth to about two years of age), preoperational thinking (occurring from about two years of age to seven years of age), concrete operations (occurring from about seven years of age to eleven or twelve years of age), and formal operations (occurring from about eleven or twelve years of age to fourteen or fifteen years of age) (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). The educational implications of Piaget’s stages are that the focus should be placed the process of a child’s thinking, recognizing the role of a child’s self-initiated, active involvement in activities of learning, deemphasizing practices pinpointed at making a child adult-like in his or her thinking, and accepting individual differences in developmental progress (Slavin, 1991). Piaget's stages focused on the idea of developmentally appropriate education with materials, instruction, environments, and curriculum suitable for a child in terms of his or her emotional and social needs, and cognitive and physical abilities.

Reference

Olson, M. H. & Hergenhahn, B. R. (2013). An introduction to theories of learning (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Slavin, R.E. (1991). Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Operant Conditioning

          B.F Skinner based his work on the work of Edward Thorndike who developed the law of effect theory (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). Through his work Skinner went on to identify fundamental principles of learning, based on experiments with pigeons and rats. From these experiments, Skinner developed an explanation as for how humans learn behaviors or change behaviors, and went on to infer that patterns of reinforcement shape behavior, which is operant conditioning. Comparing and contrasting positive and negative reinforcement in operant conditioning gives an understanding of how both are a necessity in operant conditioning. Both positive and negative reinforcement are a necessity in operant conditioning; one form of reinforcement is more effective than the other. Several reasons exist to why one form of reinforcement is more effective than the other. A given scenario can show how to apply operant conditioning to shape behavior and how the creation of a reinforcement schedule can apply to a certain selected behavior.

Theory of Operant Conditioning

          B. F. Skinner developed the “term” operant conditioning in 1937 (Staddon & Cerutti, 2003). Skinner's theory of operant conditioning explains how organisms acquire learned behaviors that they exhibit. The main focus of operant conditioning is to use reinforcement as a reward or punishment to increase or decrease the likelihood of behavior (Staddon & Cerutti, 2003). Operant conditioning is a means or method of learning, which occurs through or by reward and punishment for an organism’s behavior (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). Basically, a learner receives either reward or punishment for behavior. The learner actively has to participate in and perform a certain type of behavior to receive either a reward or punishment. In operant conditioning, behavior, and the resulting consequences of said behavior are the emphasis. Therefore, there is an association in relation to behavior and the consequence of said behavior.

A belief of Skinner was that reinforcement makes an organism what it will be. Basically, he believed that reinforcement controlled behavior and that there is a need of reinforcement to condition behavior. Reinforcement is either a reward or punishment, depending on the displayed behavior. Skinner's theory of operant conditioning explains how organisms acquire learned behaviors they exhibit.

Positive and Negative Reinforcement

          In operant conditioning, reinforcement is a means to either increase or decrease the likelihood of which a behavior occurs again (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). Reinforcement is a necessity of operant conditioning and a necessity of the learning process. Basically, reinforcement is a tool of operant conditioning either positive or negative. When positive reinforcement occurs, the outcome of behavior is desirable, and as such, behavior strengthens by a desirable outcome, as in the case of positive reinforcement following desirable behavior. When negative reinforcement occurs, an increase in behavior occurs to remove an averse stimulus, and said behavior strengthens when the removal of the averse stimulus occurs. Therefore, a positive reinforcement is an addition of a positive consequence that follows a certain behavior, although a negative reinforcement is the removal of a negative consequence that follows a certain behavior. Both positive and negative reinforcements foster the likelihood of the reoccurrence of a behavior preceding a consequence.  

Effective Reinforcement

          It seems that positive reinforcement is a more effective type of reinforcement, instead of negative reinforcement. Positive reinforcement has a positive emotional effect, and it identifies desirable behavior and consequences of desired behavior. To institute a negative reinforcement, this first involves the introduction of an averse stimulus between the operant, and the response because the withdrawal of an averse stimulus is what makes negative reinforcement effective. Therefore, a form of punishment or the introduction of a negative reinforcer is necessary in a situation to remove the negative reinforcer. One argument of Skinner was against the use of punishment because punishment last only as long as one enforces it (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). Punishment does not always result in desirable behavior. Therefore, positive reinforcement for desirable behavior is a more effective reinforcer.

Operant Conditioning Scenario

          As a divorced single parent of three children, ages 11, nine, and five; often the opportunity arises to apply operant conditioning to shape behavior. As the children are in school implementing rewards, and punishment to reinforce desirable behavior and desirable grades in school is necessary. If bad behavior was not reported by the children’s teachers and if the children received weekly satisfactory grades on weekly assignments; weekly allowance was the reward, and for satisfactory progress reports and report cards extra allowance was the reward. The punishment is no allowance for bad behavior or unsatisfactory grades. What occurs with the children is a form positive reinforcement of operant conditioning. The desired behavior in school of each of the children and the desirable grades increased in order for them to receive a reward.

Reinforcement Schedule for Scenario

          As for the operant conditioning scenario, positive reinforcement of desirable behavior and desirable grades receives a weekly reward of allowance. This is an example of a continuing reinforcement schedule, which is an effective reinforcement schedule because the children understood that desirable behavior and desirable grades received a reward (allowance), and that undesirable behavior and undesirable grades resulted in no reward (allowance) or punishment. The emphasis in this scenario is on the reward of allowance instead of the punishment of not receiving an allowance. This helps the children stay focused on positive reinforcement (receiving a reward) instead of negative punishment (not receiving a reward).   

Conclusion

          Skinner’s development of the operant conditioning theory was influential in psychology at the time of its development and still to this day. Operant conditioning, lead to the importance of how reinforcement as either a reward or punishment increases or decreases the likelihood of behavior. Also in operant conditioning through reward or punishment learning occurs. Two type of reinforcement exist, which are positive and negative reinforcement. Both forms help to increase or decrease the likelihood of behavior; positive reinforcement is the more effective type of reinforcement. The given scenario is an example in which applying operant conditioning shapes behavior. Creating a reinforcement schedule for the selected behavior increases the future likelihood that the children’s desirable behavior continues.  

Reference

Olson, M. H. & Hergenhahn, B. R. (2013). An introduction to theories of learning (9th ed.). Upper Saddle           River, NJ: Pearson.

Staddon, J. E. R., & Cerutti, D. T. (2003). Operant conditioning. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 115-           44. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/205795898?accountid=458

Introduction to Learning

          In modern psychology, learning is an important topic. To understand learning, one must also understand the role of behavior in relation to learning. In psychology, classical conditioning, and instrumental conditioning are two types of learning that explain changes in behavior. The relationship between learning and cognition is necessary and their relationship helps to understand learning. With a definition of learning along with an understanding of behavior, the types of learning, and cognition, one can understand what learning is.

Definition of Learning

          The breadth of learning unfortunately results in no agreed upon definition of learning. There is no definition of learning in which theorists agree that includes the phenomena they want to call learning that excludes other phenomena. The following definition is a fairly good definition: Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavioral potentiality resulting from the occurrence of reinforced practice (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). Further examination of this definition can provide more details about what learning is. This definition begins with a relatively permanent change that refers to learning as a relatively stable change in behavior occurring within an organism; in opposition to more transient states like moods (Mikulas, 1977). This behavioral change is neither transitory nor fixed, and this change may occur immediately or may not; therefore it occurs at a later time.

          When the definition of learning is a change in behavior potential, this pinpoints the distinction between learning and performance. Learning is always translated into measurable behavior. As for performance, this refers to the translation of this potentiality into behavior or what an organism does. The last part of the definition refers to reinforced practice. A change in behavior or behavior potentiality is the result of either an experience or practice (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). The reinforcement of an experience or practice must occur to learn a behavior; therefore if reinforcement does not occur learning will not occur.

The Role of Behavior in Relation to Learning

          Olson and Hergenhahn (2013), “a science requires an observable, measurable subject matter, and in the science of psychology, that subject matter is behavior” (p. 2). Expression of what is of study in psychology occurs through covert or overt behavior; although not all behavior of study is learning (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). Studying behavior occurs so to make inferences in regard to the process thought to be the observable behavioral changes. This process is learning. Many learning theorists are in agreement as for the study of the learning process that may not occur directly; instead only inferences may occur as for its nature from changes in behavior (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). Taking exception to this contention was B. F. Skinner, who thought behavioral changes are indeed learning, therefore no need to infer a further process, although other theorists thought behavioral changes are indeed a result of learning.

Except for Skinner and the followers of Skinner, the majority of learning theorists think that learning is a process that mediates behavior, therefore learning occurs as the result of particular experiences and comes before changes in behavior.

Types of Learning

          Learning, of course, is a term used to describe the changes in behavior potentiality, which result from experience; however, conditioning is a more defined term used to describe procedures which modify behavior (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). Therefore, there are two types of conditioning, which are instrumental and classical conditioning, several theorists determined that at a minimum there are two types of learning. These two types of learning are understood in the same terms of instrumental and classical conditioning. In instrumental conditioning there is the relationship between behavior and reinforcement, therefore a behavior is present or occurs before reinforcement (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). In this type of conditioning, an organism’s behavior is “instrumental” when getting what that organism wants, which is the reinforcer (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). An example of instrumental conditioning is to reward an individual for good behavior; therefore an individual receives a reward if the behavior is instrumental for said reward.

          In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus that does not initiate a response is pairs with a stimulus that initiates a response therefore the pairing allows the neutral stimulus to initiate the response. Basically, a conditioned stimulus (CS) is previously a neutral stimulus that after pairing with an unconditioned stimulus (UC), eventually initiates a conditioned response (CR). Ivan Pavlov’s research with dogs is an example of classical conditioning. First, Pavlov presented a dog with food, which caused salivation. Then Pavlov would ring a bell and present the dog with food, therefore the dog would start to salivate when the bell was rung. Both instrumental and classical conditioning result in learning but the processes for learning differ. The difference is that the focus of instrumental conditioning is on using either punishment or reinforcement as a means to increase or decrease behavior, whereas classical conditioning makes an association between a stimulus and an involuntary response.

The Relationship between Learning and Cognition

          As stated previously learning is a relatively permanent change in behavioral potentiality resulting from the occurrence of reinforced practice (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). Cognition is mental processes, which includes memory, attention, memory, reasoning, decision making, language, and learning. Learning and cognition share a relationship because learning involves cognition and cognition involves learning. Basically learning and cognition are integral parts of each other. Learning occurs after cognitive processes. The bases of learning theories are cognitive associations between stimuli and responses. Theories of learning incorporate cognitive associations into the basic stimulus and response associations. Approaches developed by cognitive theorists focus on cognitive processes instead of external stimuli, reinforcements, and responses. Cognitive theorists believe that first, there should be an understanding of cognitive processes, therefore this provides a comprehensive understanding of learning.

Conclusion

          Learning is a process of importance in psychology. It is a relatively permanent change in behavioral potentiality, which occurs as a result of reinforced practice (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). The role of behavior in relation to learning is that behavior provides a measurable and observable means to study learning. Two types of learning are instrumental and classical conditioning. Instrumental and classical conditioning result in learning but the processes for learning differ because instrumental conditioning makes an association between voluntary behaviors and consequences, whereas classical conditioning involves making associations between involuntary responses and stimuli. The relationship between learning and cognition is that learning involves cognition and cognition is an integral part of learning.

References

Olson, M. H. & Hergenhahn, B. R. (2013). An introduction to theories of learning (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Mikulas, W.L. (1977). Psychology of Learning. Chicago, IL: Nelson-Hall.