Biological Factors – Nature
Normally either X or Y chromosomes (sex chromosomes) in the male’s
sperm cell determine gender identity. When a sperm cell contains an X
chromosome and fertilization of a female egg occurs the result is a zygote,
which is XX or female. When a sperm cell contains a Y chromosome and the
fertilization of a female egg occurs the result is a zygote, which YX or male (Rathus,
Nevid, and Fichner-Rathus, 2005). However, consistent as it may be, this does
not always guaranty that one’s gender identity is biologically. Not everyone is
born either male or female. Sometimes one is born either intersexual or as a
hermaphrodite. One, who is born intersexual possesses the gonads of one sex but
also possesses external genitalia, which are ambiguous of the other sex (Rathus,
Nevid, and Fichner-Rathus, 2005). One, who is born as a hermaphrodite possesses
both testicular and ovarian tissue (Rathus, Nevid, and Fichner-Rathus, 2005).
Sex hormones also play another role in gender identity. Sex hormones
have two different effects over an individual, which are developmental (organizational)
effects and activational effects. Developmental effects influence one’s development
from the point of conception to sexual maturity of the physiological,
anatomical, and behavioral characteristics that distinguish an individual as
either a male or female (Pinel, 2009). Activational effects occur by activating
the reproduction-related behavior of sexually mature adults (Pinel, 2009). Activational
effects occur later in life and after sex organ development. One’s brain
development continues into the late teens, therefore the hormone surges of adolescents
have both developmental and activational effects.
Behavior and gender identity are also influenced by hormones
released by endocrine glands. The endocrine glands include the pineal, hypothalamus,
pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, adrenal, pancreas, ovary, and testis.
The primary function of endocrine glands is the release of hormones, which exerts
their effect on target areas, such as other endocrine glands or different nervous
system sites (Pinel, 2009). Therefore, one may appear anatomically as a male and
identify and behave as a female, and a female may identify and behave as a male
because of hormonal influences. The conclusion of scientists and researchers is
that complex interactions of biological and psychosocial factors influence
gender identity.
Environmental Factors –
Nurture
Indeed, X or Y chromosomes (sex chromosomes) determine gender
identity however this consistency will not always ensure the biological
existence of one’s gender identity. Therefore, even if one is born anatomically
a male or female, parents, and caregivers, and influence gender identity, especially
if one is born as either intersexual or as a hermaphrodite. Parents and
caregivers may choose to raise a child as how he or she sees fit or as how one’s
child appears. Gender identity is also influenced by the views of other
individuals and society. Stereotypically, society assumes when one appears to
be a male the more masculine and less feminine one must be, and when one
appears to be a female the more feminine and less masculine one must be.
However, this is not always true. It is just a stereotype, and this behavior
can influence gender identity.
Specifically, when one is anatomically a male but displays feminine
traits and considered feminine by society one may identify as a female.
If one is
anatomically a female but displays masculine traits and considered masculine one
may identify as a male. Therefore, one considers a male displaying feminine
traits of emotionality, tenderness, and nurturance as less masculine as other
males, and one considers a female displaying less feminine traits of emotionality,
tenderness, and nurturance less feminine and more masculine than other females
(Rathus, Nevid, and Fichner-Rathus, 2005). Although when one is highly
masculine, is does not matter if he or she is a male or female because he or
she can still possess feminine traits, and when one is highly feminine, he or
she can still possess masculine traits (Rathus, Nevid, and Fichner-Rathus,
2005).
Nature vs. Nurture
The debate of nature versus nurture is a continuing debate, which
has occurred for numerous years. Based on certain beliefs and scientific research
believing nature or biology has more of an influence over gender identity, and influences
gender identity seems correct. Anatomic sex and hormonal influences play a key
role and may be the biggest role in gender identity. When one views himself or
herself as either a male or female because of anatomic sex or hormonal influences
it is hard to deny. The possibility of nurture or environmental influences playing
a role in determining gender identity may occur just as nature or biological
influences. However, nature plays the key role in gender identity.
Arguments about Sexual Identity
Biological psychologists have used a wide range of methods to
study gender, and the preferred method is normally laboratory experiments, and
the use of animals for models to understand human behavioral processes (Sammons,
n.d.). Sammons (n.d.), “it is clear from a range of studies involving humans
and other animals that chromosomal and hormonal differences between males and
females affect a range of masculine and feminine behaviours, which supports the
biological view” (para. 7). Although most of this research is correlational,
and there is an indication of a relationship between risk-taking and testosterone
levels, unfortunately there is no indication of the direction of causality (Sammons,
n.d.). Caution should be applied with the research carried out with non-human
animals, not to assume the results apply to humans (Sammons, n.d.).
Although one can still generalize from one to the other but each
species’ evolutionary history is unique, and the function served by a sex
hormone may not reflect the same function in different species (Sammons, n.d.).
An example of this is the role oxytocin plays in the formation of pair bonds
between female and male prairie voles. Sammons (n.d.) “whilst this (and other
evidence) might imply that it is also important in humans it is fair to suggest
that the formation of pair bonds in humans is influenced by a range of
additional factors including learning and culture” (para. 8). The cross-cultural
studies, which find universal features of gender, support the biological view
(Sammons, n.d.). Of the cultures studied, females are found to be less
aggressive than males, suggesting as innate, biological difference (Sammons,
n.d.).
Sammons (n.d.), “similarly, Buss et al (1990) studied what women
and men look for in a potential mate in a large number of cultures and found
that whilst men consistently prioritized youth and physical attractiveness,
women placed a higher premium on wealth and status” (para. 9). The differences
seen may reflect the biological differences between males and female, which
arise because of the evolutionary processes. However, it is important not to
ignore the considerable gender behavioral differences between some cultures (Sammons,
n.d.). Cultures do indeed behave differently, which supports the role of
learning. In 1935, Mead documented three tribal societies living in proximity
to one another to show how different their gender roles varied (Sammons, n.d.).
These findings and similar findings suggest that biological factors influence
gender behaviors and those behaviors modify learning heavily.
Conclusion
Gender identity is a key aspect of one’s psychological awareness
or sense of self as either a male or female. Anatomic sex often determines
one’s gender identity, which is a biological factor (nature), however environmental
factors (nurture) can influence gender identity as well. Gender identity allows
one to develop into his or her identity, and progress in life as such. Research
supports both biological factors (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) as
the causes for one’s gender identity. Numerous arguments surface about sexual
identity however biopsychology provides evidence to resolve those arguments.
Rathus, S. A., Nevid, J.S., and Fichner-Rathus, L.
(2005). Human sexuality in a world of diversity. (6th ed.) Boston, MA: Allyn
and Bacon.
Sammons, A. (n.d.). Psychlotron. Retrieved from
http://www.psychlotron.org.uk/newResources/developmental/AS_AQB_gender_BioBasics.pdf
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