Social Psychology Definition

          Myers (2010), “social psychology lies at psychology’s boundary with sociology” (p. 4). Social psychology is a young discipline of science, whereas the reporting of its first experiments occurred in 1898, and the appearance of its first texts did not occur until before and after 1900 (Myers, 2010). The current form of social psychology emerged in the 1930s, and World War II was the point where it became the field it is known as today Myers, 2010). Social psychology has a specific definition, which separates it from other disciplines of psychology, and details how it differs from other related disciplines. Social psychology also has different types of research. By understanding the definition, differences from other related disciplines, and research methods, one can form an understanding of social psychology.  

Definition Social Psychology

          Myers (2010), “social psychology is a science that studies the influences of our situations, with special attention to how we view and affect one another” (p. 4). Therefore, it is a scientific study of how individuals think about, relate to, and influence each other (Myers, 2010). Components of social psychology include social influences, social relations, and social thinking. Social influences include an individual’s culture and pressure of conforming. Social relations include an individual’s attractions, intimacy, aggressions, and prejudices. Social thinking involves how an individual sees himself or herself and other individual around himself or herself. It also involves an individual’s attitudes, judgments, and beliefs. Important in social psychology are attitudes, or how an individual views a particular individual, concept, belief, or behavior.  

          Within social psychology, social psychologists try understanding the means by which the realistic, implied, or imagined presence of other individuals influences the feelings, thoughts, and behaviors of others (Thoits, 1995). Social psychologists use research to inform individuals and society how social interactions affect individuals and society. Social psychology lies at the intersection between the disciplines of psychology (the study of behavior and the mind) and sociology (the study of social behavior). Within social psychology, psychologists, and sociologists regularly cite the theories and research of each other, and draw from the theories and research of each other.

Social Psychology and Other Related Disciplines Differences

          Within psychology, social psychology is one branch, and it shares a close relationship with personality psychology. In comparison with personality psychology, social psychology is more so focused on the differences of individuals and less on how said individuals affect and view each other in general as in personality psychology (Myers, 2010). Social psychology assumes situations are the primary factor as for behavior. The intention of social psychologists is to relate behavior to environmental factors through research. Personality psychology differs because of the assumption of the primary force behind individual behavior is the disposition of an individual in a situation and not the situation itself. Social psychology also shares a close relationship with sociology. Intertwined are sociology and social psychology, although there are differences. In comparison with sociology (the study of individuals in societies and groups), the focus of social psychology is more so on individuals and uses experimentation more (Myers, 2010).

          Social psychology is a means to expand upon studies of sociologists. Although sociologists study individuals in groups, social psychologists focus on the individual in a group and use experimentation more often. Social factors affecting an individual are what sociologists study. While, identifying why said factors have effects are what social psychologist perform (Thoits, 1995). Sociologists perform studies to understand how situations, relationships, and characteristics influence an individual’s behaviors, feelings, and thoughts. Although social psychologists, provide an explanation as for why and how factors have an effect on an individual. Social psychologists try understanding how a group arrives at decisions, whereas sociologists try explaining how the characteristics of an individual have an effect on the decision a group makes. Social psychologist, focus on obedience whereas sociologists attempt to explain deviant behaviors (Thoits, 1995). Social psychology is different from related disciplines although it is shares a close relationship with one discipline, which is sociology.  

Types of Research in Social Psychology

          Social psychology uses different types of research to how individuals influence, relate to, and think about each other (Myers, 2010). These types of research enable testing of hypothesis and theories by looking for the relationships among differing variables (Myers, 2010). The types of research in social psychology are descriptive, correlational, and experimental research. Descriptive research’s point is to depict what currently exists in a population or group. This type of research cannot determine the relationship between two variables occurs; however, there is the ability to describing what exists in a given population. Through correlational research, social psychologist study relationships that naturally occur among variables, and attempt to explain these relationships (Myers, 2010). However, it lacks the ability to distinguish causation between variables (Myers, 2010). Methods to gather data for correlational research include directly observing behaviors, compiling earlier study research, and surveys. Experimental research can determine cause and affect between variables through its studies; by using by the using of independent variables, dependent variables, and a manipulated experimental factor. Therefore, by only changing the independent variable and keeping the dependent variable constant, social psychologists can isolate the specific affect that the first variable has on the second variable. Descriptive research, correlational research, and experimental research are critical to social psychology.

Conclusion

          Social psychology is a young discipline of science and is the scientific study of how individuals influence, relate to, and think about each other (Myers, 2010). Social psychology differs from the disciplines of personality psychology and sociology in varies ways. Three types of research used in social psychology are descriptive research, correlational research, and experimental research. Social psychology is an important discipline in psychology because of its study of individuals’ behavior as related to social situations.

Reference

Myers, D. G. (2010). Social psychology (10th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw Hill.

Thoits, P. A. (1995). Social Psychology: The Interplay between Sociology and Psychology. Social Forces, 73(4), 1231.

Parents, teachers, peers, and others provide memorable appraisals throughout life. When you were growing up, who in your life provided the most positive and negative appraisals? How have appraisals threatened or boosted your self-esteem? How do they affect you today?

          As I was growing up I had a similar childhood background as another individual who also had no siblings but he was raised by both parents; while I was raised by only one parent. That individual who was a single parent, provided the most positive appraisals in my life; he was my father. Growing up I traveled frequently between Australia and America, and between two different states, which were California, and Texas. Therefore, I often lost friends, remained friends with some individuals, gained new friends, and changed schools frequently. During these changes in my life, my father provided love, support, encouragement, and enjoyment throughout my development as a child until his death at my age of 17. I am not sure who provided the most negative appraisals in my life because the positive appraisals provided by my father were very overshadowing. Who I developed into today is a result of the appraisals provided by my father, which boosted my self-esteem and still has an effect on my self-esteem today. As of the affect today, I am the same man as my father; as for how I live my life, how I act as a father, and as for how I provide appraisals for my three children, which also provides a boost for their self-esteem.

Scientific research comes in many shapes and forms. Correlation research tells us if factors are related to each other. Experimental research determines if one factor causes another. Social research, presents an immediate challenge because of the infinite number of human variables. Besides the number of variables, what factors are challenges to social research?

          Social research is research conducted by social scientists. I think there are several factors that are challenges to social research. One of the more important factors is for a researcher to determine which research method to use. Research methods include correlational or experimental methods. Myers (2010), "correlational studies, sometimes conducted with systematic survey methods, discern the relationship between variables, such as between amount of education and amount of income" (p. 29). As for experimental, this is a means to conduct experiments, which explore cause and effect. Both correlational and experimental methods have an important effect on the outcome of the research. Other factors that are a challenge to social research are where research is conducted, ethics and bias. As for where research is conducted, it is either performed in a laboratory or in the environment. As for ethics, they are moral principles that guide how research is conducted, and protect the participant of research. If ethics are not followed research becomes invalid and unreliable. As for bias, once displayed it hinders the outcome of social research. Social research depends heavily on ethical and unbiased research.      

Reference

Myers, D. G. (2010). Social psychology (10th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw Hill.

According to Hebb, what is the difference between childhood learning and adult learning?

          Donald Olding Hebb, Canadian psychologist thought there were two types of learning. The first type of learning occurs during infancy and early childhood, and involves the gradual buildup of phase sequences and cell assemblies (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). The result of this early type of learning is that events and objects in the environment have neurological representation. A child can think of an event or object, or a series of events and objects when not physically present during this neural development. The second type learning is a more perceptual, rapid, and insightful learning that occurs in and characterizes adult life. It involves the rearrangement of phase sequences and cell assemblies instead of their development. Olson and Hergenhahn (2013), "once cell assemblies and phase sequences have been developed early in life, subsequent learning typically involves their rearrangement" (p. 373). Basically, children learn gradually, while adults learn at a more rapid pace. This is because phase sequences and cell assemblies are developing in children but are already developed in adult and can be rearranged in nearly an infinite number of configurations.

Reference

Olson, M. H. & Hergenhahn, B. R. (2013). An introduction to theories of learning (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

What effect does the environment have on intellectual differences in humans?

          The environment has different effects on intellectual different in humans. Donald O. Hebb thought that the environment played a critical role in the development of intelligence in humans (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). Hebb thought that there were two types of environments that had an effect on learning, which are restricted environments and enriched environments. Restricted environments have disabling effects on early learning and the development of the nervous system (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). Basically, these environments have disabling effects as for intelligence. and development. Enriched environments with a wide variety of sensory and motor experience have the potential to enhance development (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). For individuals in enriched environments, learning can occur faster and develop is well balanced. Enriched environments also have a positive effect that restricted environments do not, which is reversing the effects of restricted environments. When one experiences damage in a restricted environments it can be reversed by transitioning into enriched environments.

Reference

Olson, M. H. & Hergenhahn, B. R. (2013). An introduction to theories of learning (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Cognitive Theorist

          Jean Piaget, Swiss developmental psychologist and philosopher whose career had a profound effect on both education and psychology. Throughout his career, Piaget made several contributions to learning and to cognition. There is also a very important model developed by Piaget and theoretical concepts associated with that model. This model developed by Piaget still has a modern-day relevancy.

Contributions to Learning and to Cognition

          Piaget made several contributions to learning and to cognition by developing theories that helped understand the cognitive differences between adults and children. He provided support for the idea of children and adults think differently. Piaget’s work also generated and increased interest in developmental and cognitive psychology. Students in education and psychology study the theories of Piaget to understand learning and cognition. Applying Piaget's theory of cognitive development to the education of children is another contribution that enables the effective teaching of children (Kuhn, 1979). One last contribution of Piaget’s is the creation of the International Center for Genetic Epistemology, which occurred in 1955.  

Model associated with Piaget

          Jean Piaget developed the theory of cognitive development, which distinguishes the four primary cognitive structures that correspond to four stages of intellectual development. The stages are in turn divided into distinctive sub-stages in which distinctive cognitive abilities emerge. These stages are sensorimotor stage (birth to about two years), preoperational thinking (about two to seven years), concrete operations (about seven to 11 or 12 years), and formal operations (about 11 or 12 to 14 or 14 years).

Sensorimotor Stage

            This stage occurs from birth to about two years. A characteristic of this stage is the absence of language; however, the stage is not characterized by thinking, such as Piaget viewed thinking (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). Basically, infants, and toddlers do not have words for things therefore objects do not exist when a child is not interacting with the objects directly. Strictly sensorimotor are children’s environmental interactions, what children deal with is the here, and present. Egocentric, refers to how children are at this stage, and they see every, and anything with themselves as a frame of reference (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). Also at this stage a child’s psychological world is the only one of existence. The concept of permanence for a child develops toward this stages end; therefore children start to realize that objects still exist when they are no longer experiencing those objects.

Preoperational Thinking

            This stage occurs from about two years to seven years. In this stage there are two subdivisions, which are preconceptual thinking (occurring basically two to four years) and the period of intuitive thought (occurring basically four to seven years) (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). During preconceptual thinking, children start the formation of rudimentary concepts. Olson and Hergenhahn (2013), “they begin to classify things in certain classes because of their similarity, but they make a number of mistakes because of their concepts; thus, all men are “Daddy,” all women are “Mommy,” and all toys they see are “mine” (p. 275). Logic at this stage is transductive, instead of deductive or inductive. During the period of intuitive thought a child does not solve problems in accordance with any logical rules but rather intuitively. Also during this period a child lacks the ability to develop conversation. The “term” conversation refers to the ability of realizing that length, substance, number or area remains constant; even if presented in different ways.  

Concrete Operations

          This stage occurs from about seven years to 11 or 12 years. During which, children develop the abilities to conserve, deal with classes adequately. As well as develop the ability to deal with number concepts, and seriation, such as in the ability to arrange certain things from largest to smallest or smallest to largest (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). A child also has the ability of performing complex operations on problems; however, the problems cannot be abstract; they have to be concrete. During this stage, the thought processes of a child direct toward observable existing events.

Formal Operations

          This stage occurs from about 11 or 12 years to 14 or 15 years. Children can deal with hypothetical situations, and his or her thought processes are not exclusively bound by what is existing and immediate at this stage (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). At this stage thinking is as logical as possible, and one’s mental apparatus is as sophisticated as possible. Although there is the ability to direct this apparatus toward the solution one’s never ceasing problems throughout life (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013).

Theoretical Concepts Associated with the Model

          Theoretical concepts developed by Piaget are intelligence, schemata, assimilation, and accommodation, equilibration, and interiorization. Piaget described intelligence as a dynamic trait because the availability of an intelligent act changes as an organism biologically matures and can gain experience (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). Piaget thought of intelligence as a necessary part of any organism because every organism seeks intelligent conditions, which are beneficial to the survival of said organisms. Exactly how intelligence exhibits itself during any point and time inevitable varies as conditions vary (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). A schema, as thought of by Piaget is an element in cognitive structure of an organism. An organism’s available schemata, determines how said organism may respond to the physical environment (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013).

          Olson & Hergenhahn (2013), “schemata can manifest themselves in overt behavior, as in the case of the grasping reflex, or they can manifest themselves covertly” (p. 271). Assimilation and accommodation identify two types of learning experience and both are involve the storage and acquisition of information (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). Basically, assimilation is a static type of learning, which has limitations because of the present cognitive structure, and accommodation is a continuing steadily growth of the cognitive structure, which changes the character of any subsequent learning (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013).

          Equilibration, as thought of by Piaget is the motivating force behind intellectual growth. Piaget made the assumption that every organism had an inherent tendency to develop a harmonious relationship between their environment and themselves. Equilibration is the inherent inclination to organize one’s experiences ensuring maximal adaptation. Practically, equilibration is the continual drive toward balance or equilibrium. Interiorization is a gradual decrease in dependence on the physical environment and the increased utilization of cognitive structures (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). It is the process that adaptive actions develop into increasingly covert instead of overt.   

Modern-day Relevancy of the Model

          Today, areas of psychology, sociology, education, and genetics continue to study Piaget's theories. Piaget’s work continues to contribute to the understanding of cognitive development in children and how to educate children effectively. Earlier researchers often viewed children as version of adults but smaller versions. Through Piaget’s theories he helped to demonstrate childhood is a special and important human development period. Piaget’s work is influential and continues to influence students and psychologists.

Conclusion

          Developmental psychologist Piaget’s career and work had an effect on education and psychology in a profound way. Piaget made several contributions to learning and to cognition, such as his stages of intellectual development, which describe the cognitive development of children. Piaget’s models and theoretical concepts helped to understand the cognitive abilities of children; who indeed differ from adults and their cognitive abilities differ. Said models and theoretical concepts still have a modern-day relevancy all these years later.

 Reference

Olson, M. H. & Hergenhahn, B. R. (2013). An introduction to theories of learning (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Kuhn, D. (1979). The application of piaget's theory of cognitive development to education. Harvard Educational Review, 49(3), 340-60.

According to Hebb, what is the difference between childhood learning and adult learning?

      Donald Olding Hebb, Canadian psychologist thought there were two types of learning. The first type of learning occurs during infancy and early childhood, and involves the gradual buildup of phase sequences and cell assemblies (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). The result of this early type of learning is that events and objects in the environment have neurological representation. A child can think of an event or object, or a series of events and objects when not physically present during this neural development. The second type learning is a more perceptual, rapid, and insightful learning that occurs in and characterizes adult life. It involves the rearrangement of phase sequences and cell assemblies instead of their development. Olson and Hergenhahn (2013), "once cell assemblies and phase sequences have been developed early in life, subsequent learning typically involves their rearrangement" (p. 373). Basically, children learn gradually, while adults learn at a more rapid pace. This is because phase sequences and cell assemblies are developing in children but are already developed in adult and can be rearranged in nearly an infinite number of configurations.

Reference

Olson, M. H. & Hergenhahn, B. R. (2013). An introduction to theories of learning (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.