Wednesday, August 28, 2013

What is the difference between conditioned and unconditioned responses? Provide at least three examples of each type of response.

          In classical conditioning both conditioned and unconditioned responses occur. The difference between a conditioned response and an unconditioned response is that a conditioned response is a learned response to the previously neutral stimulus; while an unconditioned response is an unlearned response, which occurs naturally in response to an unconditioned stimulus. Basically, a conditioned response is a learned behavior and an unconditioned response is a response or a reflex. Examples of conditioned responses are the sound of an ice cream truck's music can trigger excitement in children, the sound of opening a bag of dog food can trigger excitement in a dog, and the smell of a certain cologne or perfume of an intimate partner can make an individual feel sexually of emotionally aroused. In these examples the behaviors are conditioned responses. Examples of unconditioned responses are jumping or ducking at the sound of a loud noise, jerking one's hand back after touching a hot oven, and after a bee sting gasping in pain. In these examples responses occur automatically and naturally.
Reference

Olson, M. H. & Hergenhahn, B. R. (2013). An introduction to theories of learning (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Tuesday, August 27, 2013

What theoretical concepts are attributed to B. F. Skinner? Which one of these concepts had the greatest effect on the field of psychology? Why?

          B.F. Skinner was an American psychologist, who developed theoretical concepts that had an influential effect on psychology then and still today at the present time. Skinner's theoretical concepts influence students, psychologist, psychiatrist, and psychology. Theoretical concepts contributed by Skinner include radical behaviorism, operant behavior, type S and type R conditioning (operant conditioning), which led the way for Skinner to be regarded  as the father of operant conditioning. Skinner's operant conditioning is based on Thorndike’s law of effect. Every theoretical concept of Skinner had an effect on the field of psychology but I think Type R (operant conditioning) is the concept that had the greatest effect on the field of psychology. Type R (operant conditioning) is a fundamental concept in behavioral psychology. Olson and Hergenhahn (2013) "two general principles are associated with Type R conditioning: (1) any response that is followed by a reinforcing stimulus tends to be repeated; and (2) a reinforcing stimulus is anything that increases the rate with which an operant response occurs" (p. 75). Therefore, learning occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior, and there is an association between a behavior and the consequence for said behavior.   
Reference

Olson, M. H. & Hergenhahn, B. R. (2013). An introduction to theories of learning (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

How does the concept of reward versus punishment apply to society?

          The concept of reward versus punishment applies to behaviors in society. Rewards and punishments are a means to influence or deter behaviors in society. Rewards and punishments are also motivators that determine how an individual behaves according to social norms. Rewards are a means to influence positive behaviors in society that are often viewed as socially acceptable or socially normal. Rewards influence and increase the likelihood that one conforms to or continues socially acceptable behavior. However, rewards may influence negative behaviors in society as well and lead to punishment. For instance one may behave in accordance with the group he or she identifies with, which leads to a reward but also may lead to punishment because that behavior is not socially acceptable or normal. While punishments are a means to deter negative behaviors in society, which are viewed as socially unacceptable behaviors. Punishment influences and increases the likelihood that one conforms to socially acceptable behavior. Punishment may also lead to a reward. For instance one may behave in a way that is contradictory to the group he or she identifies with, which leads to punishment but also leads to reward because that behavior was socially acceptable or normal.

Thursday, August 15, 2013

Is learning the result of instinct or experience? Provide two examples to support your viewpoint.

            Learning is often considered a relatively lasting change in behavior, which is a result of experience, however I think learning is a result of both instinct and experience. Therefore, some behaviors are not learned while other behaviors are the result of learning. Instinct refers to complex behavior patterns that are genetically determined (Olson & Hergenhahn 2013). When behavior occurs that is genetically determined or occurs as a result of instinct then it generally ensures that a species survives. An example of an instinctive behavior of humans is the flight or fight response in the presence of danger or potential danger. Experience refers to an instance, thing, or event that modifies or change behavior, therefore, learning also occurs as a result of experience and behavior changes occur, which may include physical, overt, intellectual or attitudinal changes. An example of how learning is a result of experience goes back to flight or fight, therefore through experience one recognizes signals of flight or fight activation and can avoid excessive reactions to fears and circumstances that do not pose a threat to life.  
Reference
Olson, M. H. & Hergenhahn, B. R. (2013). An introduction to theories of learning (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Is learning permanent? Why or why not?

          I think that learning is permanent. Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavioral potentiality, which occurs as a result of reinforced practice (Olson & Hergenhahn 2013). When behavioral change is relatively permanent, such as learning it is neither fixed nor transitory (Olson & Hergenhahn 2013). Basically when learning occurs it is permanent but what is learned may or may not be used immediately. What is learned may be forgotten until recalled into memory or needed for use. Therefore, learned material is often forgotten until it is needed, such as when taking a test one may forget anything learned until it is recalled into memory because of a certain question on the test. Also whenever learning occurs the result is always translated into measurable behavior. A measurable behavior may occur instantly or it can occur later when anything that is learned is needed or used such as stated before when taking a test. Sure some things that are learned may be forgotten but in all learning is a permanent process, which can be reinforced by practice or experience.    
Reference
Olson, M. H. & Hergenhahn, B. R. (2013). An introduction to theories of learning (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Thursday, August 8, 2013

If we were able to increase the maximum life span would this be beneficial? Explain why or why not.

          Yes if we as humans were able to increase the maximum life span I think it would be beneficial. Sometimes we as humans die to young because of many different reasons and should be able to live out our maximum life span to guide, influence, and affect in positive ways the lives of other generations, family members, and other members of society. We as humans understand what guidance and influence provides for us and how it affects our lives. If able to increase maximum life span then older generations may be able to guide, influence, affect, and be able to benefit the lives of younger generations, family members and other members of society. Also older generations may be guided, influenced, affected, and benefit from the lives of younger generations, younger members of their family, and younger members of society. Several members of society have died to young who influenced and changed the lives of their generations and younger generations but if they were still alive then their influence over society may be even greater.

          By increasing the maximum life span not only are the life spans of positive individuals increased but the life spans of negative individuals are also increased; but I am an optimist and believe that humans are inherently good. By increasing the maximum life span the good will outweigh the bad as far as the result that follow with such as increase

Do you plan to retire or continue working as an older adult? Explain why.

          At the present moment in time as a college student and divorced father of three children, I have no plans to retire when I become an older adult. Although, this my change when I do become an older adult because I may become remarried and other life plans may change. As of right now I am pursuing goals, as far as education and career, such as a Masters in Clinical Psychology and a Ph.D. in Clinical Psychology that will allow me to work and not retire until my health diminishes. I plan to work as a licensed clinical psychologist and teach at the college level. I think as a licensed clinical psychologist I can provide significant services for clients dealing with a variety of mental health issues or disorders, and hopefully allow my clients to live a life of as close to possible with unhindered daily functioning. As a professor I think I may be able to guide future counselors, psychologist, and psychological researchers by providing substantial knowledge pertaining to psychology from the viewpoint of an individual that is amazed by psychology, the human brain, mind, and their inner workings. Also I intend on providing support from my three children well into their adulthood and beyond; sure my children will become adults one day but I think as their parent I will never stop providing support for them whenever needed.   

Issue Analysis

1.         What are some of the strengths associated with the Pro side of the issue?  What are some of the weaknesses?
          The Pro side of the issue gives women the encouragement to make the decision for “opting out” of their careers because of the commitments to childrearing and family. The most beneficial strengths of the Pro side of this issue are that children and one’s family benefit because otherwise children would spend the hours during which the parents are working away from home. This time would be spent in a daycare with a babysitter, or in another program, and the mother would spend numerous hours away from her family. This leaves the child or children without the beneficial features that parents provide that foster development during infancy and early childhood, which are critical stages of development that form a foundation for the future well-being of children. Infancy and early childhood are the most advanced periods of a child’s development, and during these periods development is beneficial to a productive life of a child (Berger, 2011).
          A child’s family has more influence on development through infancy and early childhood than any other period of life, which is why a mother’s presence in the home instead of the workplace is critical (Berger, 2011). The benefits of a mother “opting out” of work may out weight the benefits of placing a child or children in daycare, with a babysitter, or other programs. Also a mother’s commitment to family by opting out of work may be beneficial to the strength and successful of her family and may ensure the less likelihood of divorce. A husband may always depend on his wife as far as taking care of the daily needs of the family and household. There are several weaknesses associated with “opting out.” One weakness associated with “opting out” of working is that certain women may possess a resentful attitude toward her husband and children for the loss of her career.
          Another weaknesses associated with “opting out” of working is that certain women spend years attending college to meet certain aspirations and goals, therefore by “opting out” those aspirations and goals disappear. One last weakness associated with “opting out” of working is that certain women may suffer from depression because of the loss of their career and loss of work colleagues. 
2.         What are some of the strengths associated with the Con side of the issue?  What are some of the weaknesses?
          The Con side of the issue gives women the encouragement to make the decision for not “opting out” of their careers because of the commitments to child-rearing and family. The most beneficial strengths of the Con side of this issue are that women maintain their career goals and aspirations and still can have a role in child-rearing and family life. Women attend college just as men and work just as hard as men to obtain meaningful careers. When women opt out of working, they give up on their hard work in college and in their careers to raise and care for their family, which they are still able to do while also working (Noble, 2009). Dual incomes of families can provide a better means of life for one’s family (Noble, 2009). There are several weaknesses associated with not “opting out.” One weakness associated with not “opting out” of working is that the burden of child-rearing and family care-giving is not solely a woman’s responsibility. Another weakness associated with not “opting out” of working is that women are just as entitled as men to maintain their careers while providing for their families. One last weakness associated with “opting out” of working is that the household is women’s work (Guest, 2011). The burden of the household should not be a woman’s work because men are just as capable of helping with the household.
3.         Based on the statements presented in this critical issue, which author do you agree with?  Provide supporting evidence.
          Based on the presented statements both Hirshman and Stone make valid arguments but Hirshman’s statements make a more valid point. Indeed if women intend to make a difference in the workplace it is their actions that will make the difference. If women demanded better work schedules, daycare centers in the workplace, or daycare compensation or reimbursement they may enable themselves to maintain their careers and still take care of their families more effectively. When parents take into account both of their incomes then one parent not working may be counterproductive and not beneficial for the family (Guest, 2011). Indeed women have the choice of either returning to work after childbirth or staying home with the child or children whichever option is best is for each woman to decide based on her goals.
Hirshman may a valid point about the women who want equal rights and to have a place alongside men but those who did not return to work after childbirth were not serious about their desires and wants of a career and family. Indeed some men do not consider women to be serious about their careers when a career is not the first priority. The feminist movement is beneficial for women, “opting out” is a phenomenon, and feminism did not go far enough (Guest, 2011).
4.         Explore two other roles that can be acquired during early and middle adulthood, such as through parenthood, romantic relationships, and career.  How have these roles changed through the past generations?
          One role that may be acquired during early and middle adulthood through parenthood is the role of the stay-at-home caregiver who is the father. This role gives the option of not sending infants and adolescents to daycare or programs that cared for them during the work hours of the parents, and allows women of marriages to continue to maintain their careers. The key figure in this role was usually the woman (mother) and not the man (father). When the father is the stay-at-home caregiver it allows a woman to maintain her goals and aspirations of a career. This leads to another role whereas the mother is the main finical provider for the family. The key figure in this role was usually the male (father) and not the woman (mother). A woman in this role is the main decider of all the family’s finical responsibilities, which was usually left up to the man.
5.         What psychological adjustments are made during early and middle adulthood to adapt to aging and changes in life style?  How does this affect development?
          During the years of early and middle adulthood individuals make several psychological adjustments that may drastically affect his or her way of life. During these years of early and middle adulthood individuals psychological adjustments are made to adjustment to changes in life that concern careers, relationships, marriage, divorce, and childbirth, which affect one’s psychological well-being. Women often suffer through menopause during these periods of years. Menopause often accompanies distressing psychological symptoms occur in women. Men sometimes suffer through a midlife crisis that also affects one’s psychological well-being. When individuals reach early and middle adulthood have already met many developmental milestones but often there is a need for psychological adjustments when adapting to aging and changes in one’s lifestyle.
Reference
Berger, K. S. (2011). The developing person through the life span (8th ed.). New York, NY: Worth Publishers.
Guest, A. (2011). Taking sides: Clashing views in life-span development (3rd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Noble, H. (2009). Opting in vs opting out. British Journal Of Nursing, 18(21), 1290.

Monday, August 5, 2013

Analyze A Pressure Often Faced in Adolescence: Peer Pressure

Encouragement placed on an individual to conform to his or her peers (friends or contemporaries) in attitude, behavior, and dress is peer pressure (Berger, 2011). Peer pressure occurs when an adolescent allows his or her peers (individuals of the same age range) to influence his or her behavior and decisions. Peer pressure can be a negative force, as when adolescent peers encourage another peer or peers to defy the authority of adults (Berger, 2011). However, peer pressure is not always negative. Peer pressure can either be positive or negative depending on how an adolescent handles it (Fanning, 2003). Positive peer pressure can lead an adolescent to make positive changes in his or her life. The positive effects of such peer pressure can lead to positive behaviors. For instance, if an adolescent has trouble maintaining a good grade point average in school he or she may decide to get help from a tutor to raise his or her grade point average after he or she receives encouragement from his or her peers.
Negative peer pressure can lead an adolescent to make negative changes in his or her life. The negative effects of such peer pressure can lead to adverse behaviors. For instance, an adolescent under stress to impress his or her peers takes certain risks that endanger his or her health, compromise his or her values, and jeopardize his or her future (Fanning, 2003). Those that influence peer pressure over adolescents are the cliques and crowds that adolescents join. According to Brown and Larson (2009), assists “cliques and crowds provide social control and social support, via comments, exclusion, and admiration” (as cited in Berger, 2011, p. 443). A clique is a group of adolescents and close friends who show loyalty to each other while excluding outsiders (Berger, 2011). The individuals in cliques share the same interests and values.
A crowd is a larger group of adolescents who have common interest but may not necessarily be friends (Berger, 2011). Common interest, such as ethnicity, certain personal characteristics, or particular activities of interest may be the basis of crowds. Crowds also provide encouragement for certain values. Cliques and crowds possess the ability of influencing the behaviors of adolescents through the peer pressure they impose, which is either a positive or negative influence.  
Fanning, K. (2003, 10). Peer pressure. Scholastic Choices, 19, 6-10. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/208800872?accountid=458

Thursday, August 1, 2013

What attracts someone to another person? Why is attraction different from person to person?

     Many factors enter into what attracts one individual to another individual. These factors are physical appearance (physical characteristics), attitudes, propinquity, and reciprocity. Physical appearance is one of the key factors of attraction between individuals. Often an individual has an attraction to another individual because he or she determines another individual to be physically appealing. An appealing physical appearance may stimulate an individual's interest in another individual; therefore one may be more likely to become acquainted with another individual. Attitudes are a determinate of attractions because individuals are usually attracted to other individuals with the similar attitudes. Propinquity is the psychological or physical proximity between individuals. Attractions may be formed from seeing or the ability to see another individual frequently. Individuals tend to live among other individuals who are reasonably similar to each other in background and thus come into contact with them frequently, which can form an attraction (Rathus, Nevid, & Fichner-Rathus, 2005). Another aspect of propinquity is that individuals are drawn to or attracted to other individuals who share similar attitudes. Reciprocity is a key determinant of attraction. When one individual feels admired and is complimented by another individual he or she tends to return the same feelings and behaviors, which attracts one to another. 
     Attraction is different from one individual to another individual because individuals have different beliefs of what one thinks is attractive or appealing or is not attractive or appealing. What is attractive for one individual may be unattractive for another individual.      
Reference

Rathus, S. A., Nevid, J.S., and Fichner-Rathus, L. (2005). Human sexuality in a world of diversity. (6th ed.) Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.