MOOD
DISORDERS: The main symptom that occurs in mood disorders is a substantive mood
disruption. The characteristics of mood disorders are intense and extreme moods,
which seem rather unsuitable in the context within, which mood disorders occur.
Mood disorders are a combination of the mood episodes, such as major
depressive, hypomanic, and manic episodes. Mood disorders are a result of
genetic components or factors; as a result of twin studies.
Disorder
|
Definition
|
Depressive
Disorders
|
·
The common feature of every depressive
disorder is the presence of empty, sad, or irritable mood, accompanied by cognitive
and somatic changes, which significantly affect one’s ability to function (American
Psychiatric Association, 2013).
·
The difference of these disorders is the issues
of presumed etiology, or timing, and duration.
|
Major Depressive Disorder
|
·
This is a disorder with an occurrence of one
or more than one major depressive episodes without a history of hypomanic or
manic episodes (Hansell & Damour, 2008). Every individual who experiences
one episode will not experience another episode; however, the more episodes
one experiences then he or she is likely to continue having episodes.
·
The main aspect of a major depressive episode
is it last for at least 2 weeks, whereas one is either depressed mood or has
a loss of pleasure or interest in regards to nearly any activity.
·
Symptoms: diminished capacity for one to enjoy
normal activities, daily depression, weight loss or gain, hypersomnia or
insomnia, fatigue, agitation, feelings of excessive guilt or worthlessness, suicidal
ideation, and inability to concentrate.
|
Single Episode
|
·
This is when only a single episode of any mood
disorder occurs.
|
Recurrent
|
·
Recurrent is when an episode of any mood
disorder occurs often or repeatedly.
|
Dysthymic Disorder
|
·
This disorder last for two years or more with
a consistent depressed mood and with other symptoms, which are not severe
enough for meeting the criteria for a major depressive episode (Hansell &
Damour, 2008).
·
It is depression, which is less severe than a
major depressive episode, but it is more chronic.
·
The diagnostic criteria for dysthymic disorder:
depressed mood for most days for at least two years, insomnia or hypersomnia,
fatigue, difficulty with making decisions, poor concentration, poor appetite
or over-eating, and feelings of hopelessness (Hansell & Damour, 2008)
|
Bipolar
Disorders
|
·
These are mood disorders whereas one
experiences abnormal low and high moods, and are either a combination of episodes,
which are either major depressive and manic, or major depressive and
hypomanic.
|
Bipolar I Disorder
|
·
This disorder is a combination of major
depressive and manic episodes. Whereas normal mood interruption occurs
because of either major depressive or manic episodes, or occasionally from
mixed episodes whereas both major depressive and manic symptoms are present
and involve the recurrence of both types of episodes.
|
Bipolar II Disorder
|
·
This disorder is a combination of major
depressive and hypomanic episodes, in which normal mood interruption occurs
because of either major depressive or hypomanic episodes; and involves the
recurrence of both types of episodes (Hansell & Damour, 2008).
·
Normally accompanied by impairment in social
and work functioning.
|
Cyclothymic Disorder
|
·
This disorder is a mild form of bipolar
disorder combination of depressive and hypomanic mood swings, which are less
severe than those that occur with Bipolar I and II disorders.
·
Although, this occurs chronically for at least
two years (Hansell & Damour, 2008). Mood alternates between dysthymic
lows and hypomanic highs.
|
SUBSTANCE-RELATED
DISORDERS: The DSM-IV-TR divides
these disorders into substance use and substance-induced disorders. The DSM-IV-TR
also distinguishes between substance-induced and substance-induced mental
disorders. These are the result of general medical conditions and disorders
with unknown causes. Substance-related disorders are the result of genetic,
biological, and behavioral factors.
Disorder
|
Definition
|
Alcohol-Related
Disorders
|
·
These types of disorders relate to or are the
result of alcohol consumption.
|
Alcohol Dependence
|
·
Also referred to as alcoholism; often
accompanied by personality disturbances, depression, anxiety, and general
impairments in functioning (Hansell & Damour, 2008).
|
Alcohol Abuse
|
·
This is a maladaptive pattern of drinking
alcohol, which leads to clinical significant distress or impairment, and
disrupts daily functioning.
|
Amphetamine-
(or Amphetamine-like)-Related Disorders
|
·
These disorders relate to or are the result of
using amphetamines.
·
Characteristics of amphetamine dependence:
compulsive drug use and drug-seeking, which leads to molecular and functional
and molecular changes within the brain (American Psychiatric Association,
2013)
|
Caffeine-Related Disorders
|
·
These disorders relate to or are the result of
using caffeine.
·
Symptoms: insomnia, restlessness, diuresis,
nervousness, excitement, and gastrointestinal disturbance, muscle twitching,
and thinking or talking in a manner of rambling (American Psychiatric
Association, 2013).
|
Cannabis-Related Disorders
|
·
These disorders relate to or are the result of
using cannabis.
·
The main features of these disorders are the
compulsive usage, tolerance of the effects of cannabis, and withdrawal
symptoms.
·
Diagnosis of these disorders involves the
presence of problematic psychological or behavioral or changes, which include
social withdrawal, and impaired judgment, anxiety, motor coordination, and
euphoria (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
|
Cocaine-Related Disorders
|
·
These
disorders relate to or are the result of using cocaine.
·
These are either cocaine use disorders or
cocaine-induced disorders.
·
Acute (short-term) symptoms: psychosis,
intense feeling of happiness, elevated anxiety, elevated self-esteem, a state
of increased sensory sensitivity, and alertness
·
Chronic (long-term) symptoms: psychosis, hallucinations,
irritability, and elevated anxiety
|
Hallucinogen-Related
Disorders
|
·
These disorders relate to or are the result of
using hallucinogens.
·
These disorders produce similar psychological
and physical effects.
·
Psychological symptoms: delusions of physical
invulnerability, paranoia, anxiety attacks, long-term memory loss, and psychological
drug dependence
|
Inhalent-Related Disorders
|
·
These disorders relate to or are the result of
using inhalants.
·
These disorders are inhalant abuse and inhalant
dependence substance use disorders.
·
Inhalant abuse at least one or more symptoms
occurring during a 12-month time frame: social and legal problems, and danger
to oneself
·
Inhalant dependence at least two or more symptoms
occurring during a 12-month time frame: loss of control, harm to oneself, and
inability to stop using
|
Nicotine-Related Disorders
|
·
These types of disorders relate to or are the
result of using nicotine.
·
Tobacco’s feature psychoactive ingredient is
what causes nicotine disorders.
·
Psychologically and physically, nicotine is an
addictive drug.
·
Nicotine is a psychoactive drug; therefore,
its use within these disorders changes mood and alters brain chemistry.
|
Opioid-Related
Disorders
|
·
These disorders relate to or are the result of
using opioids.
·
Opioid abuse and dependence are substance use
disorders, and intoxication and withdrawal are substance related disorders.
|
Phencyclidine-(or Phencyclidine-like)-Related
Disorders
|
·
These disorders relate to or are the result of
using phencyclidines.
·
Symptoms: physiological changes to the circulatory
and nervous system, disturbances in behavior and thinking, and can cause
psychotic, anxiety, and mood disorders, and hallucinations
·
Psychiatric and social symptoms: impaired
judgment, agitation, schizophrenic-like psychoses, and hallucinations of touch,
sight, or sound
|
Sedative,
Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic-Related Disorders
|
·
These disorders relate to or are the result of
using sedatives, hypnotics, or anxiolytics.
·
These disorders are the cause of mental and
physiological slowing of one’s body.
·
These disorders work by increasing the amount
of the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in the brain (American
Psychiatric Association, 2013).
·
Symptoms: depression of the nervous system and
causes sleepiness, reduced anxiety and pain, and muscle relaxation
|
Polysubstance-Related
Disorder
|
·
This disorder relates to or is the result of indiscriminately
using at least three classes of substances.
·
Indiscriminately using sedatives,
hallucinogens, and cocaine warrants a polysubstance dependence diagnosis.
|
SCHIZOPHRENIA
AND OTHER PSYCHOTIC DISORDERS: have abnormalities in one or more of the
five following domains, such as disorganized thinking (speech), hallucinations,
and delusions, abnormal or grossly disorganized motor behavior, which includes
catatonia, and negative symptoms (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Most
psychodynamic theorists are in agreement, whereas biological and behavioral
components contribute to these disorders.
Disorder
|
Definition
|
Schizophrenia
|
·
Schizophrenia is a pattern of severe
behavioral and cognitive symptoms, which last for six months or longer and
results in significant impairment of life.
·
There are two categories of symptoms, which
are positive and negative, or type I and type II.
|
Paranoid Type
|
·
This type is a schizophrenia subtype with pronounced
auditory hallucinations or delusions.
|
Disorganized Type
|
·
This type is a schizophrenia subtype with pronounced
disorganized behavior, inappropriate or flat affect, and disorganized speech.
|
Catatonic Type
|
·
This type is a schizophrenia subtype with pronounced
psychomotoric symptoms that include rigid physical immobility, and extreme or
unresponsiveness echopraxia, behavioral agitation, echolalia, muteness, and echolalia.
|
Undifferentiated Type
|
·
This type is a schizophrenia subtype with
schizophrenic symptoms, which are active but fail at fitting into the
disorganized, catatonic, or paranoid subtypes.
|
Residual Type
|
·
This type is a schizophrenia subtype that
follows at least one schizophrenia episode, whereas there are no pronounced
schizophrenia positive symptoms.
·
However, there are some positive symptoms,
which are milder and negative symptoms (Hansell & Damour, 2008).
|
Schizophreniform
Disorder
|
·
Diagnosis of this disorder involves the
presence of a psychotic episode with every feature of schizophrenia but has
yet to last six months.
|
Schizoaffective
Disorder
|
·
Diagnosis of this disorder involves the
presence of a mood disorder and schizophrenia symptoms (American Psychiatric
Association, 2013)
|
Delusional
Disorder
|
·
This is a disorder with nonbizarre delusions
and without any other symptoms, which last one month at least.
|
Brief
Psychotic Disorder
|
·
Diagnosis involves the presence of a psychotic
episode with every feature of schizophrenia but does not last one month;
therefore, after recovery functioning returns to a normal baseline.
|
Shared
Psychotic Disorder
|
·
Diagnosis of this disorder involves the
presence of delusions, which developed in a close relationship context with a
psychotic individual (Hansell & Damour, 2008).
|
Case Analysis
John Forbes Nash, Jr. is one who many individuals consider as to be
the greatest mathematical geniuses in history (Meyer, Chapman, & Weaver, 2009).
Nash was born in Bluefield, WV into a family where his father was emotionally distant;
however, his mother was nurturing and loving. Nash lacked social skills and did
not have friends or have any close relationships with others. During his unhappy
childhood, Nash lacked social skills and often avoided interactions with others
unless forced into social interactions by his parents, and some odd behavior
patterns started to emerge. During his life from many accounts of others, Nash spent
the majority of his life in delusion, unaccountable for many of his actions. Whereas,
his actions were mainly bizarre and maladapted exaggerations of what one
considers as normal human behavior. Basically, Nash’s psychotic symptoms
manifested gradually throughout his life. However, through his intellectual
ability he excelled throughout school, and college later received a Ph.D. from
Princeton. Nash in 1994 earned the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences;
however, for the majority of his life he had to balance mathematical genius
against the struggle with suffering from schizophrenia.
Components of Schizophrenia
Hansell and Damour (2008), “the DSM-IV-TR currently defines
schizophrenia in terms of a constellation of severe cognitive and behavioral
symptoms that last for a certain length of time (six months or more) and result
in significant life impairment” (p. 460). Schizophrenia’s main symptoms are in
two categories, which are positive and negative or type I and type II. Pathological
excesses are positive symptoms, such as disorganized behavior, thought, and speech,
and also hallucinations and delusions (Hansell & Damour, 2008). Pathological
deficits are negative symptoms, such as withdrawal, loss of motivation, emotional
flatness, and diminished cognitive skills.
Biological
During the turn of the twentieth century, the development and refinement of the diagnosis of schizophrenia by early pioneers,
mainly medical scientists held the belief that schizophrenia was basically
biologically the result of a diseased brain and with the possibility of a
genetic origin (Hansell & Damour, 2008). Biological research of
schizophrenia seemed to support this same view during the twentieth century’s
first half; whereas, brain structure abnormalities were discovered in individuals
who suffered from schizophrenia. Hansell and Damour (2008), “however, much of
this research was conducted by German scientists working during the Nazi era
and was tainted by the ethical outrage over Nazi medical experiments” (p. 472).
In recent years, by using the techniques of brain imaging it has become easier
to study abnormalities in brain functions associated with schizophrenia.
Therefore, brain function abnormalities and schizophrenia do share an
association. Recent research does show the existence of abnormalities in many
neurotransmitter systems of individuals who suffer from schizophrenia (Hansell
& Damour, 2008).
Emotional
The majority of cases of schizophrenia, whereas the contents of
hallucinations and delusions are negatively emotional or even terrify an individual.
The negative symptoms of schizophrenia are also emotional flattening. Normally if
emotions are displayed they are normally restricted or are inappropriate in
context. Basically, schizophrenia disrupts emotional functioning.
Cognitive
Cognitive theorists developed many ideas that are influential as
for the role of schizophrenia and cognitive processes. Some of the focus has
been on abnormal attentional processes’ role. An example of this is where schizophrenia’s
positive symptoms have a relationship with the problem of overattention;
whereas, an individual who suffers from schizophrenia cannot screen out stimuli
that are irrelevant. This may be the result of dopaminergic abnormalities;
because overattention results in difficulty in the ability to cope with stress and
possible psychotic symptoms (Hansell & Damour, 2008). Schizophrenia’s
negative symptoms may share a relationship with equally problematic underattention
as for stimuli that are important; which, lead to apathy and withdrawal. An
example of this is where studies show that an individual with negative symptoms,
which are prominent lack a normal orienting response or physical changes with
an association of sharpened attention as for stimuli that are novel.
Behavioral
The
focus of behavioral theorists is of the importance of learning as for the
treatment and development of schizophrenia. Specifically, they make the argument,
whereas the reinforcing of abnormal responses may contribute to behaviors,
which are abnormal of schizophrenia through operant conditioning principles (Hansell
& Damour, 2008).
Conclusion
Nash
is a mathematical genius, who battled schizophrenia throughout his life and
even maintained a full remission of schizophrenia for more than 20 years and
earned a Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences. Schizophrenia is a pattern
of severe behavioral and cognitive symptoms, which last for six months or
longer and results in significant impairment of life. Schizophrenia has several
components, such as biological, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral components,
which interact to cause this disorder.
American Psychiatric Association: Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition. Arlington, VA, American
Psychiatric Association, 2013. Web. [access date: 1 June 2013].
dsm.psychiatryonline.org
American Psychiatric Association: Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition. Arlington, VA, American
Psychiatric Association, 2013.
Meyer, R., Chapman, L. K., & Weaver, C. M. (2009).
Case studies in abnormal behavior. (8th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn &
Bacon.
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